Nicomedia, but was afterwards recalled to Constantinople. Subsequently, however, he withdrew, and passed the remnant of his days at Antioch, his native city. He was admired and patronized by Julian the Apostate, and in common with the latter cherished the hope of restoring the reign of paganism in the Roman empire. He has left an auto-biography, styled Aoyos ngi Tis lauroυ Túgns, which is placed among his discourses.

Schöll, vi. 159.-See also Gibbon, Rom. Emp. ch. xxiv.-Tillemont, Hist. des Empereurs, tome iv. p. 571.-Lardner, Heathen Testimonies, vol. iv. p. 576.

3. Schöll gives the Greek titles of above 60 of the Declamations. In the Rhetorical Examples are 13 sections, each devoted to examples of a separate kind. The Letters are about 2000; some of them to Christian Fathers; Basil and Chrysostom both were pupils of Libanius. He left also Arguments to the Orations of Demosthenes, which are usually given in the editions of this

orator.

4. There is no edition of the whole works of Libanius. The most complete edition of the Declamations is that of J. J. Reiske, Altenb. 1791--97. 4 vols. 8. published after his death by his widow. It contains the Rhetorical Exercises.-Two additional discourses have been since published, one by Ch. Siebenkees, in his Anecdota Græca, Norimb. 1798. 8; the other by A. Mai, in his Fronto, Milan, 1815. 8; Rome, 1823.-The most complete edition of the Letters is that of J. Ch. Wolf. Amst. 1738. fol.-In the libraries of Spain are discourses and probably other writings of Libanins hitherto unpublished.-There is a German translation of 5 of the Discourses, by the wife of Reiske, in the Hellas, Lpz. 1791.

IV.—Grammarians.

§129. Next to the rhetoricians, it will be proper to notice the writers called grammarians, Toanuaτizoi. This class included not only such as treated of the subjects now comprehended under mere grammar, but all who devoted themselves to any of the various branches of philology. (P. I. § 71.) This department of study began to be more specially cultivated in the period after Alexander, and particularly at Alexandria. It was in this period that catalogues were first formed of authors regarded as classical; these catalogues were called canons.

§130. The works of these grammarians were of various kinds. Among them were the following; todos, revisions of the text of classical authors ; Ὑπομνήματα and Εξηγήσεις, commentaries ; Σχόλια, explanatory notes; Zytiμata, Avosis, investigations and solutions of particular difficulties; FoDai and Ages, which treated of dialectic and peculiar forms and single words; Suzta, collections of similar phrases and passages from different authors. Some wrote upon the subject of grammar in the most limited sense; some upon different specific topics included in it, as syntax, metre, dialects, and the like. These authors undoubtedly exerted considerable influence upon the language and literature of their own and subsequent times; and their works are of value to us, as containing much information respecting earlier periods and authors.

§ 131. The most distinguished that flourished before the fall of Corinth, B. C. 146, were Zenodotus, founder of the first school of grammar at Alexandria, Aristophanes of Byzantium his disciple, and Aristarchus of Samothrace, a disciple of Aristophanes. The latter was especially celebrated, (cf. Hor. Art. Poet. 450); so that his name became a common designation for an eminent critic. Crates, Philemon, Artemidorus, and Sosibius are names which occur also in this period. That of Zoilus has been preserved as a common name for a severe and captious critic; he made himself notorious, in an age abounding with admirers of Homer, by his criticisms and declamations against that poet, and thus gained the epithet Homeromastix. Whatever the grammarians of this age composed, nothing remains to us but trivial and scattered fragments.-Scholl, livre iv. ch. xxxv.

In the next period of Grecian literature, particularly after the time of Augustus, the list of grammarians is altogether larger. Only a few names can

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

here be given. Of those who may be called lexicographers, Apollonius sur named the Sophist, Erotianus, Timæus, and Julius Pollux are the principal. Tryphon, son of Ammonius, Phrynicus the Arabian, and Ælius Maris wrote on dialects. Among the scholiasts and commentators may be mentioned Ptoemy VII., Didymus, Apion, and Epaphroditus. Of the writers on different topics of grammar, we may select Dionysius Thrax, Tryphon above named, Apollonius Dyscolus, and his son Herodianus, Arcadius of Antioch, author of a treatise on accents, and Hephæstion, whose Manual on Metres comprises nearly all that is known on the subject. Some of the above mentioned will be noticed separately.-Scholl, livre v. ch. lix.

§ 132. After the time of Constantine letters continued to be cultivated by the grammarians. Constantinople was now the seat of erudition. A sort of University was founded here, in which all the branches of human knowledge were professedly taught. The teachers or professors were styled Olzovμevizoi. A valuable library was also established. Philology in its various parts was among the sciences taught by the ecumenical professors. These studies were not renounced with the destruction of the library and the decline of the royal college, but were continued with more or less attention until the final capture of the city by the Turks. The writers during this long period were very numerous; only a few have acquired celebrity; while many of their productions yet remain in manuscript. The names and works of the most important authors will be given below.

It may be proper to observe here, that the Greek literati, who fled from Constantinople on its capture in 1453, and exerted an important influence on the study of Greek letters in Italy and western Europe, belonged chiefly to the class denominated grammarians. Their labors, in their new asylums in the west, were chiefly of a philological character. Cf. § 7. 2.

$133t. We shall place here some general references, and then proceed to notice separately a few of the Grammarians.

Lexicographical Collections.-ALDINE, Dictionarium Græcum, &c. Ven. 1497. fol. Dictionarium Græcum, &c. Ven. 1524. fol.-H. STEPHANUS, Glossaria duo e sinu vetustatis &c. 1572. fol.-VULCANIUS, Thesaurus utriusqve linguæ &c. Lug. Bat. 1600. fol.-Cf. C.F.Matthiæ, Glossaria græca minora &c. Rig. 1774. 8.-J. A. Ernesti, de gloss. græc. vera indole et recto nsu. Lips. 1742. 8. matical.-ALDINE, C. Lascaris Erotemata &c. Ven. 1494. 4. Theod. Gaza Introd. Gram. Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. vi. 141. - Schöll, Hist. L. G. vi. 281 ss. &c. Ven. 1495. fol. and 1525. 8.-Thesaurus Cornucop. et Horti Adonidis. Ven. 1496. fol. — GramErotemata Chrysolere, &c. Ven. 1512 and 1517. 8.Fabricius, Bibl. Græca. lib. v. c. 7, in the ed. of Harles, lib. iv. c. 39.-Also Schöll, Hist. Lit. Gr. - Respecting the Aldine collections, see as cited $7.9. Introduc. p. xliv. xlviii.-and Renouard, Annales de l'Imprimerie des Aldes, &c. Par. 1803. 2 vols. 8. Supplem.1812. PHIL. GIUNTA or JUNTA, Enchiridion grammat. Introd. &c. Flor. 1514, 1517, 1540. fol. -H. STEPHANUs, in the Appendix to his Thesaurus ($7.3). BER. JUNTA, Theod. Gaze, grammiat. &c. Flor. 1526. 8. M. VACOSANUS, Thoma Magistri et Moschopuli Ecloga, &c. Lut. 1538.- VILLOISON, Anecdota Græca &c. J. BEKKER, Anecdota Græca. Berl. 1812-21. 3 vols. 8.-W. DINDORF, Grammatici Græci. Lips. Ven. 1781. 2 vols. 4.1823. 8. See C. D. Beck, Commentarii de literis et auctoribus Græc. atque Latinis. Sect. I. p. 47. — Cf. J. Harris, in his Miscellanies. Lond. 1781. 8. 4th vol. p. 247 ss. — Histor. Ling. Græcæ. Proleg. 610. Schöll, Hist. Litt. Gr. Introd. p. lxii. - On the value of the scholiasts; Jo. Mart. Chladenius, Opusc. Academ. Lips. 1741. 8. Harles, Introd. in

$134. Hephaestion, of Alexandria, lived about the middle of the 2d century. He is to be distinguished from the mythographical writer, who had the same name.

1u. His Manual on Metres, 'Eyzɛigidior лegi piroor, contains almost every thing which is known respecting the rules and principles of the ancient critics on this subject.

2. The first edition was in B. Junta, cited $133.-A. Tournebouf, Par. 1533. 4. with scholia.— Best edition, Gaisford. Oxf. 1810. 8. & Lips. 1832.

$135. Apollonius Dyscolus was also of Alexandria, and flourished in the 2d century under Hadrian and Antoninus Pius.

lu. He has left us four grammatical treatises, viz. Iegi ovrružews, Of Syntax; Περί αντωνυμίας, Of the pronoun; Περὶ συνδέσμων, of conjunctions; and Περί 'Eлigonuator, Of adverbs. We have also a compilation styled “Ιστορίαι θαν

dorai, or Wonderful Histories.

2. The treatise on Syntax was published by Aldus, in Thesaurus Cornuc. cited $133.-Sylburg. Francf. 1590. 4. J. Bekker, Berl. 1817. 8. That on the Pronoun, by J. Bekker, in the Museum

Antiquitatis Studiorum. Berl. 1808. vol. 1. p. 225. — The other two, by the same, in his Anecdota, cited § 133. The historical compilation, by Teuchen. Lpz. 1792. 8.

3. We have a work on Grammar from an earlier author, the Tivn Toanuarizh of Dionysius Thrax, who lived at Alexandria, B. C. about 60.-published in Fabricius, Bibl. Gr. (Harles ed. vol. vi.)-in Villoison, and Bekker, as cited § 133.

$136. Elius Herodianus was a son of the Apollonius just mentioned. He enjoyed the favor of the emperor Marcus Aurelius Antoninus. There was another person of the same name, who was a historian, and must not be confounded with the grammarian.

lu. Of many works written by the latter, the treatise Пgi uovigovs Réžεws appears to be the only one that has been preserved entire.

The titles of several other treatises are

2. This treatise is found in Dindorf, as cited $133. given by Schöll, v. 28. Fragments of some of which are given in Bekker, and Villoison, as cited 133. and in G. Hermann, De emendanda ratione gram. Gr. Lips. 1801. 8. - The piece styled ETIMEQiouoi was published by Edw. H. Becker. Lond. 1819. 8.-Cf. Schöll, v. p. 27.

137. Julius Pollux (for Polydeuces, Hovdens), of Naucratis in Egypt, flourished in the 2d century, at Athens. He was in profession a sophist, but is chiefly known by his Greek Dictionary.

lu. It is entitled 'Orquαorizor. This work is divided into 10 books, according to subjects. It is very useful, not only in illustrating Greek words and phrases, but also in explaining many subjects of general antiquities.

2. The following are some of the topics of the books respectively. 1. Gods, Kings; Commerce, Mechanic Arts; Houses; Things relating to War; Agriculture. 2. Age of Men; Members and parts of the Human Body. 3. Family Relations, Friends; Travels; Roads, Rivers. 4. Sciences. 5. Animals; the Chase. 6. Repasts; Crimes. 7. Of various Trades. 8. Things relating to the administration of Justice. 9. Cities, Edifices, Money, Games. 10. Furniture, Utensils, &c.

3. Editions. B. W. Dindorf. Lpz. 1824. 2 vols. 8. "The 4th & 5th volumes comprise the entire body of notes by the preceding editors." — F.-Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1502. fol. Jata. Flor. 1520. fol.-Seber. Francf. 1608. 4. with the Latin version first published by Walther. Bas. 1541. 8.-T. H. Lederlin & T. Hemsterhuis. Amst. 1706. 2 vols. fol. with a valuable Preface by the latter, on the use of the Dictionary.

4. We have before named (§131) as lexicographers, in the period of Greek literature designated by the epithet Roman (§ 9), three authors besides Pollux : Apollonius Sophistes, in the time of Augustus, from whom we have a (a) Homeric Lexicon, Airis Ounginal; Erotian, in the time of Nero, from whom we have a (b) Glossary to Hippocrates; Timaus, who lived later, in the end of the 3d century, and from whom we have a (c) Platonic Lexicon, Aižris IIhatwvinúi. (a) Published by Villoison. Par. 1773. 2 vols. 4.-by H. Tollius. Leyd.1788. 8. (b) Published by Franz. Lpz. 1780. 8.- (c) Published by Ruhnken. Leyd. 1754. 8. impr. repr. by W. A. Koch. Lpz. 1898.

$138. Elius Maris, surnamed the Atticist, flourished about A. D. 190. His work, styled Λέξεις' Αττικῶν καὶ Ἑλλήνων, is preserved.

I. Editions.-B.-W. A. Koch. Lips. 1830. 8. with useful notes.-F.-The first, by J. Hudson. Oxf. 1712. 8. — next, J. Fischer. Lpz. 1756. 8. with the Lexicon of Timæus. -J. Pierson. Leyd. 1759. 8.-J. Bekker (with Harpocration). Berl.1833. 8. mere text.

2. Tryphon and Phrynicus the Arabian were mentioned (§131) in connection with Maris, as having also written on dialects. There are some remains from them noticed by Schöll (v. 11). The principal is the IIoonagaozvÝ σ0Orizi, Apparatus sophistique,' of Phrynicus, in the latter part of the 2d century; published by Bekker, as cited § 133. vol. 1.

$139. Harpocration, of Alexandria, probably flourished as a contemporary of Libanius, in the 4th century. He was the author of a Lexicon entitled Λέξεις τῶν δεκα ρητόρων, useful in reference to the Greek language generally, and the Attic orators in particular.

Published by Aldus (with Ulpian's Comm.) Ven. 1503. fol. ---- Blancard. Leyd. 1683. 4. — Better, by J. Gronov. Leyd. 1696. 4. — A new edition, Lips. 1824. 2 vols. 8. Later, by J. Bekker, Berl. 1633. 8.

$140. Hesychius lived at Alexandria, as is generally supposed, towards the close of the 4th century. He compiled a Greek Lexicon or

Glossary, from the more ancient grammarians, and illustrated his se lections by examples from the best Greek authors. Additions were made to this work by later hands, among which are probably the numerous theological glosses (glossa sacra). Perhaps, in its present state, it is the work as enlarged by some Christian author.

Editions. B.-J. Alberti (completed by Ruhnken). Leyd.1774-76. 2 vols. fol. A kind of Sup plement is the work of Nic. Schow. Lips.1792. 8. exhibiting the results of a collation of Alberti's edition with the only existing manuscript, that in the library of St. Mark at Venice. A new edition has been expected from Gaisford. F.-Princeps, by Aldus. Ven. 1514. fol. (ed. M. Musuras).-Junta. Flor. 1520. fol.-Schrevelius. Leyd. 1688. 4.-The glossa sacra were collected by J. C. G. Ernesti. Lpz. 1785. 8. with a Supplement, 1786. 8. See Schleusner, Observ. in Suid. et Hesychium. Wittemb. 1810. 4.-Schöll, vi. 282.

2. The author of the Lexicon must not be confounded with Hesychius of Miletus, in the 6th century, under Justinian, from whom we have some remains not very important. Published by J. Orelli. Lpz. 1820. S.-Schöll, vi. 404. vii. 75.

141. Ammonius, of Alexandria, probably lived in the latter part of the 4th century. He is said to have been an Egyptian priest, and to have fled from Constantinople on the destruction of the pagan temples. He was the author of a work entitled Περί ὁμοίων και διαφόρων λέξεων. It is a work of some value in the criticism of words.

It was published in Aldus, in the Dictionarium etc. cited § 133.-H. Stephanus, in Append. to his Thesaurus, cited § 7. 3. — Given also in Scapula's Lexicon, cited § 7. 3. - The best edition is Valckenar. Lug. Bat. 1739. 4. Repr. (ed. Schafer). Lpz. 1822. 8. A good abridgment of Valckenar's, by C. F. Ammon. Erlang.1787. 8.-A French translation, by A. Pillon. Par.1824.8. There is a treatise by Ammonius, IIɛQi' Azvoodoy ías, On improper use of words, never printed. $142. Photius, Patriarch of Constantinople, died A. D. 891. He may be placed in the class of writers now under notice, although he was a man of letters in general, rather than a grammarian.

1u. His Mugioßißlov, Bibliotheca, or Library, is in many respects valuable. It contains critical notices of about 280 works of ancient writers, accompanied with extracts. Of a number of these works we should otherwise have scarcely known the titles. His Lexicon, Aeon ouraywy, although in a mutilated state, is useful in the study of the historians and orators.

2. The life of Photius presents a series of interesting incidents. His character was not without some blemishes, and he experienced great vicissitudes of fortune. From a layman he was raised to the office of patriarch. He was deposed and banished; after ten or eleven years recalled and reinstated; but again deposed, and confined in a monastery, where he died.--Gibbon, Roman Empire, ch. ix.-Milner, Ch. History.

3. Besides the works above named, we have also from Photius a work styled Nomocanon, a collection of canons of the church, and a number of letters, homilies, and dissertations. — For a particular account of the Myriobiblon, see Schöll, vi. 305.- Fabricius, in Bibl. Gr. X. 678. ed. Harles. Cf. Edinb. Rev. No. XLII. — Lond. Quart. vi. 218.-J. H. Leichii Diatribe in Photii Bibliothecam. Lips. 1748. 4.

4. There is no edition of the whole works of Photius.-Of the Library, there have been, until recently, but three editions.-D. Heschel. Augsb. 1601. fol.-P. Stephanus. Genev. 1611. fol. with the version of A. Schott, first publ. Augsb. 1696.-Same, repr. by Berthelin. Rouen, 1553. fol.-A new edit. was commenced by Bekker. Berl. 1824. 4. The Lexicon was first published by G. Hermann, with the Lexicon of Zonarus. Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4. (by Tittmann & Hermann.) Photius, the 3d vol.-Better, R. Porson. Lond. 1822. 8. (ed. by Dobree.)—Cf. J. F. Schleusner, Animadv. ad Photii Lex. Lips. 1810. 4.-Same, Curæ noviss. in Phot. Lex. Lips. 1812. 4. The Nome canon was printed Par. 1620. fol. with Balsamon. The Letters (248), by Montacutius (Montague). Lond. 1651. fol.

$143. Suidas probably lived about A. D. 1000, although it cannot be made certain. He was the author of a Lexicon, compiled from various authors, grammarians, commentators, and scholiasts. It is not executed with much judgment, accuracy, or skill in arrangement. Yet it is of considerable value on account of its store of literary and antiquarian information; and many of its defects, especially in the apparent want of method, may be owing to interpolations and additions made by transcribers and others.

Editions. Princeps, by Dem. Chalcondylas. Mil. 1496. fol. --- Aldus. Ven. 1514. fol.- Frobe

The fol

nius. Bas. 1544. fol. -Em. Portus, Gr. & Lat. Gen. 1619. 2 vols. fol.-L. Kuster, Gr. & Lat. Camb. 1705. 3 vols. fol. This is altogether superior to any preceding edition; yet not without defects. Some severe criticisms of J. Gronovius, called forth an answer from Kuster in his Di atribe Anti-Gronoviana. Amst. 1712. 8.-T. Gaisford. Lond. 1833. a greatly improved ed. G. Bernhardy, Gr. & Lat. Halle, 1836. 2 vols. (post Thom. Gaisfordum) with notes. lowing works further illustrate Suidas. - Toup. Emend. in Suid. Lond. 1760-75. 4 vols. 8.; also in his Opusc. crit. Lpz. 1780. 2 vols. 8. and ed. by Burgess, Lond. 1790. 4 vols. 8.-SchweigAduser, Emend. et Obs. in Suidam. Argent. 1789. 8. — Reinesii Observ. in Suidam (ed. C. G. Muller). Lpz. 1819. 8.

$144. In this connection we ought to notice the work of an unknown author, who lived about A. D. 1000. It is a Greek Glossary, styled 'Ervuohoyizor uiya, the Etymologicum magnum. Besides its value as a grammatical work, it is still more useful because it has preserved many passages of ancient authors, and furnished solutions of many difficulties in history and mythology.

1. Editions of the Etymologicum. — Princeps, by Z. Calliergus (ed. M. Musurus). Ven. 1499. fol.-P. Manutius (ed. Torrisani). Ven. 1549. fol.-Commelin (ed. F.Sylburg). Heidelb.1594. fol. - Panagiota (of Sinope). Ven. 1710. fol. - Schafer. Lpz. 1816. 4. a repr. of Sylburg's. To this last edit. the following works may be viewed as the 2d and 3d vols.; F. W. Sturtz, Etymologicum ling. Gr. Gudianum, &c. Lpz. 1818. 4. - - By same, Orionis Etymologicum. Lpz. 1820. 4. Cf. Schöll, v1. p. 277, 294. — Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. vol. XLVII. p. 105. Remarques crit. sur l'Etymolog. Magnum.

2. In the libraries of Europe are several Lexicons, or Glossaries, still remaining in manuscript, particularly in the Royal library of France.-We may also mention here one first published by Villoison in his Anecdota, cited § 133; the 'Iwriú or Violarium, by Eudocia, wife of the Emperor Constantine Ducas, and his successor for a short time, but soon after placed in a convent. In this retreat she wrote her work, a sort of historico-mythologic compilation, supposed to be of much value before Villoison published it.-Schöll, vi. p. 296.

$145. Eustathius, of Constantinople, flourished in the 12th century, and became finally bishop of Thessalonica.

1u. He is particularly celebrated for his copious and learned Commentary on Homer, entitled, Παρεκβολαί εἰς τὴν ̔Ομήρου Ιλιάδα, and Παρεκβολαί εἰς την Οδύσσειαν. We have also from him a less valuable commentary on Dionysius Periegetes.

2. The Comm. on Homer was first published, Rome, 1542-1555. 3 vols. fol. containing the index of Devarius. (Cf. § 50. 5.)-This repr. Bas. 1560. 3 vols. fol.-An ed. commenced by Politi, Flor. 1730, but never finished.-Extracts from the Comm. often published with Homer.J. Bekker, Eust. Comm. ad Hom. Odysseam. Lips. 1825. 2 vols. 4.-Same, Eust. Comm. ad Hom. Iliadem. Lips. 1829 ss.-Cf. Bulletin des Sciences Historiques, vol. 1v. p. 337.-A commentary by Eustathius on Pindar is lost.-Schöll, v1. 269.

3. John Tzetzes may be named in connection with Eustathius; he was a grammarian at Constantinople in the same century (cf. § 81).

146. Gregorius, surnamed Pardus, and afterwards Corinthius. from being the Bishop of Corinth, lived about the middle of the 12th century. Of his many works two only have been published; one is a treatise on the Greek dialects, Περί Διαλέκτων, and the other a Commentary on the last part of the Rhetoric of Hermogenes (131. 1).

The treatise on dialects, edited by G. Koen, Leyd. 1766. 8. better than any ed. previous.-By G. H. Schafer, Lpz. 1811. 8. still better.-The Commentary is given in Reiske (cited §99), vol.

§ 147. Thomas Magister or Theodulus may be mentioned here. He lived in the beginning of the 14th century (about 1310). After holding the place of the Magister officiorum under the emperor Andronicus Palæologus, he became a monk with the name of Theodulus. A work by him is extant, called 'Εκλογαὶ ὀνομάτων Αττικῶν. Ὁ 1. First published by Calliergus, Rome, 1517, 8.-Best by J. S. Bernard, Leyd. 1757. 8. and L. G. S. Schwabe, Altenb. 1773. 8.-Cf. G. Hermann, Prog. de præceptis quibusdam Atticistarum Lpz. 1810. 4.

>

2. Here might be mentioned Emmanuel Moschopulus Cretensis, Manuel Moschopulus Byzantinus, Emmanuel Chrysoloras, Theodorus Gaza, and other grammarians, whose labors were connected with the revival of classical learning in Europe. See § 7. 2. and P. I. § 85. 1.