sight some knowledge of physical nature, grew into a sort of regular science. The institutions termed mysteries had, in their nature and design, some intimate connection with this early religious philosophy. (Cf. P. I. § 41. P. IV. § 70-75.)

It

When the progress of society demanded the care of the lawgiver, and began at the same time to furnish the talents and knowledge requisite to frame successful codes, then philosophy assumed a new aspect. The moral and social nature of man began to be studied more. Reflecting minds examined into the motives by which men may be actuated, and contemplated the nature, proper punishments, and preventives of crime, the theory of government and of education. In learning the character of this political philosophy, we must consider particularly the civil institutions of Lycurgus and Solon, and the character and doctrines of those who are called, by way of eminence, the wise men of Greece.A glance at the former shows us, that very particular reference was had to the training of youth for their future circumstances. The two legislators differed widely in their systems. The Spartan aimed to form a community of high-minded warriors; the other sought rather a community of cultivated scholars. The plans of education varied accordingly. Lycurgus enjoined abstinence and hardships; Solon furnished books and teachers. must not be forgotten, however, that the Spartan system was two hundred years earlier than the Athenian. The seven sages belong the age of Solon, who was indeed himself one of them. They were all actually employed as magistrates and statesmen; but they were also the philosophers of the age. They were not merely speculative, like the disciples of the different sects afterwards; nor did they, like the preceding poets, indulge in fanciful dreams : they were rather men of shrewd practical observation. Hence the character of their philosophical fragments, which are wholly proverbial maxims, adapted for the conduct of life in manners and morals. Their precepts were not always given in formal statements, but sometimes clothed in symbolic expressions, which were understood only by those to whom they were explained. Fabulous tales were also sometimes employed for the same purpose; such were those of Æsop, in which moral and political maxims are drawn out into allegory.

On the political philosophy of the Greeks. Enfield, Hist. Phil. bk. ii. ch. 2. - Ritter, Theil. 1. p.137. as cited $183. 2.-Warburton, Div. Legation of Moses, bk. ii. sect. 1-3. — Chevalier Ramsay, Travels of Cyrus, bk. iv. & v. De la Barre, Histoire de Lycurge, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. VII. 262.- La Nauze, Etat des Sciences chez les Lacedæmoniens, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. XIX. p. 166.-C. G.Heyne, De Zaleuci et Charonde legibus atque institutis, in his Opusc. Academ. tom. 11. Is. de Larrey, Histoire des sept sages (with rem. by Beaumarchais) Lahaye, 1734.

2 vols. 8.

$168. The next aspect in which we find Grecian philosophy, presents it as ezhibited in the different schools, and sects. This aspect was not distinctly assumed until a little after the age of Solon, during our third period of Greek Literature (§ 9). The first origin of different schools is commonly ascribed to the clashing interpretations, which were put upon Homer by the Rhapsodists (§ 21), who after rehearsing passages from the great poet and master, added their own explanations and comments. These interpreters disagreed in expounding the Homeric philosophy, and soon had followers or advocates among those not belonging to their particular profession. At length two very eminent men arose and became each the head of a school in philosophy, about the same period: viz. Thales and Pythagoras, who died, the former about 540, the latter about 500 B. C.-Thales founded what is called the Ionic school, and Pythagoras the Italic school. From these two original schools, all the sects may be derived. We will first slightly notice these two, and then briefly speak of the sects that subsequently grew out of each. § 169. The Ionic was the earliest of the two schools. Thales, its founder, was a native of Miletus, possessed of wealth, and great talents. He traveled in Crete and Egypt. Ranked among the seven sages, he devoted much thought to political philosophy. But he also took up all the inquiries about the physical and material world, which were agitated by the Rhapsodists. The precept γνώθι σεαυτόν is attributed to him.

Philosophy as studied in this school included in reality every branch of science, not only morals and politics, but rhetoric, mathematics, astronomy, and

all that is now comprehended under natural philosophy and natural history. It was a grand point of inquiry among the disciples to ascertain what was the first principle of all things in the universe. Some found it in one or other of the material elements; others recognized a divine mind, as prior to all other causes. The principal philosophers were Anaximander, Anaximenes, Anaxagoras, and Archelaus of Miletus.

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. 1x.—Cudworth's Intellectual System, ch. i. §22, and ch. iv. § 20.-H. Ritter, Histoire de la Philosophie Ionienne, Berl. 1821. 8.-Śame, Geschichte &c. Theil I. as cited 183. 2.-Abbé de Canaye, sur le philosophe Thales, in Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. tome x.Johnson's Tennemann, sect. 85-87.

§ 170. The Italic school was still more celebrated. Its founder, Pythagoras, was a native of Samos. After traveling, especially in Egypt, he taught morals and politics at Samos. For some cause he afterwards went to Italy, and established his school at Crotona in Magna Græcia. The pupils, whose numbers soon amounted to 600, dwelt in one public building, and held their property in common. Their business for each day was very regularly planned. They were divided into two classes, probationers and initiated; the latter only were admitted to all the privileges of the order, and made acquainted with its highest knowledge. This establishment was at length broken up by popular violence.

Under philosophy the Italic school, like the Ionic, included every object of human knowledge. But Pythagoras considered music and astronomy of special value. He is supposed to have had some very correct views of astronomy, agreeing with the true Coperican system. The beautiful fancy of the music of the spheres is attributed to him. The planets striking on the e ther, through which they pass, must produce a sound; this must vary according to their different magnitudes, velocities, and relative distances; these differences were all adjusted with perfect regularity and exact proportions, so that the movements of the bodies produced the richest tones of harmony; not heard, however, by mortal ears.----One of his distinguishing peculiarities was the doctrine of emanations; God is the soul of the universe, pervading all things, incorporeal; from him emanated four different degrees of intelligencies, inferior gods, dæmons, heroes, and men. Another was the doctrine of μetεury wars, or transmigration of the soul. General abstinence and selfgovernment were strongly urged.-Some of his apophthegms and symbolic precepts are preserved. (Cf. § 58. 1.) Some of the principal disciples were Empedocles (§ 64), Ocellus, Archytas, and Philolaus. The latter is said to have sold to Plato the records and books of the Pythagorean school.

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. xii.-H. Ritter, Geschichte der Philos. Theil I.-Ramsay, Trav. of Cyrus, bk. vi.-Heeren, by Bancroft, ch. xiv. p. 297.-J. Scheffer, de natura et constitutione philosophia Italicæ. Vitemb. 1701. 8.-Dacier, La vie de Pythagore, ses symbols, &c. Par. 1706. 2 vols. 12.-Th. Kiessling, Jamblichi de Vita Pyth. liber. Lips. 1815. 8.-Cousin's Tennemann, / § 88-95.-Good, Book of Nature, vol. 1. lect. 2.

§ 171. The first school, that drew its descent from the Ionic, was the Socratic. This is so named from its founder, Socrates, who was a pupil of the last public teacher of the Ionic school. Socrates is entitled to the praise of being the best man of pagan antiquity; the charges brought by some against his purity being without evidence.-He was first trained to the manual employment of his father, a common statuary; but was afterwards patronized by a wealthy Athenian, named Crito, and enjoyed the instruction of eminent teachers. He was several times engaged in war as a soldier; in one engagement he saved Alcibiades when wounded; in another, Xenophon. After he began to teach, most of his time was spent in public, and he was always ready and free to discourse. In the latter part of his life he was called to civil offices. His domestic vexations from his wife are proverbial, but very possibly exaggerated. The trial, condemnation, and death of Socrates, are themes of intense interest both to the scholar and the philanthropist; and have fixed an indelible blot on the character of the Athenians. At trial he had no advocate, but made his own plea. Lysias had prepared an oration for his use, but he declined the favor; Plato would have spoken, but the court forbade it.

The Socratic mode of instruction has been mentioned before (P. I. § 73). One of the grand peculiarities of Socrates was, that he confined the attention of his pupils chiefly to moral science. He considered the other subjects in

cluded in the studies of the old Ionic school as comparatively useless. He seems to have believed, but with some doubtings, the immortality of the soul. He left nothing in writing; but we have an authentic source of knowledge respecting his views in his Memoirs,' Anourquovεuara, by Xenophon. The writings of Plato cannot be so much depended on for this object, because he was himself the founder of a new sect. Those disciples of Socrates who adhered to their master simply, without advancing notions of their own, are sometimes denominated pure Socratic. Eschines, Cebes, and Xenophon are the principal.

Enfield, bk. ii. ch. iv.-Rollin, bk. ix. ch. iv.-Gillies, Hist. Greece, ch. xxiv.-Mitford, ch. xxii. §3.-J. G. Cooper, Life of Socrates, &c. Lond. 1771. 8.-G. Wiggers, Socrate comme homme, citoyen et philosophe. Rost. 1807.-Fraguier, Demon de Socrates, Mem. de l'Acad. des Inser. 1v. 360,-Freret, Sur le condemnation de Socrate, in the same Mem. &c. XLVII. p. 209. -R. Nares, Essay on the Demon of Socrates. Lond. 1712. 8.-Cudworth, Intell. System, ch. iv. 23.-Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, § 113-118.-Cousin's Nouveaux Fragmens Philosophiques. Par. 1828. 8. p. 151.-Schweighauser, Theology and Morals of Socrates, in his Opusc. Academ.-and transl. by F. M. Hubbard, in Bibl. Repos. July, 1838, and Jan. 1839.

§ 172. The Socratic school was soon divided into numerous branches. No less than five sects appeared, headed by philosophers who had listened to Socrates, and two of these ere long gave birth each to a new sect, thus raising the number to seven. These may be divided into two classes, and perhaps well designated as Minor Socratic and Major Socratic sects, the original and proper school of Socrates being called Pure Socratic.

The Minor Socratic were three; the Cyrenaic, Megaric, and Eliac.

The Cyrenaic had its name from Cyrene, in Libya, the native place of its founder, Aristippus. The peculiarities of this sect favored indulgence in pleasure. Its author was fond of luxury and ornament. The sect was of short duration. They were sometimes styled 'Hdovizoi. -The Megaric

took its name from the native city of its founder, Euclid, who was born at Megara. It was also called Eristic, from its disputatious character, and Dialectic, from the form of discourse practiced by its disciples. This sect was famous for its subtleties in the art of reasoning. Some of their futile sophisms are recorded; e. g. the HORNED; what you have never lost, you have; horns you have never lost, therefore you have horns. These philosophers also agitated the controversy about universals and particulars; the same substantially as that which was so acrimonious in the middle ages, between the nominalists and the realists. The Eliac was so called from Elis, the place where its founder, Phædo, was born and delivered his lectures. It is sometimes called Eretriac, from the circumstance that Menedemus, a disciple of Phædo, transferred the school to Eretria, the place of his own nativity. It opposed the fooleries of the Megaric philosophy, and the licentiousness of the Cyrenaic, but never acquired much importance.

On the Cyrenaic sect; Enfield, bk. ii, ch. v.--Fr. Mentz, Aristippus philosophus Socraticus, Halle, 1719. 4.-Cousin's Tennemann, § 121.-On the Megaric; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. vi.-J. G. Hager, Dissert. de modo disputandi Euclidis. Lips. 1736. 4.-Cousin's Tennemann, § 125. On the Eliac; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. vii.

§ 173. The Major Socratic sects were four, viz. the Cynic and Stoic, Academic and Peripatetic; each of which was founded at Athens, and will deserve a short notice.

The Cynic originated with Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates. He maintained that all the philosophers were departing from the principles of that master. He assumed the character of a reformer; severe in manners; carefully negligent of dress, so much so as to provoke the ridicule of Socrates. The Cynics were rather a class of reformers in manners, than a sect of philosophers. Their name is said by some to have been occasioned by their severity and sourness, which were such as to bring upon them the appellation of Dogs. They had two grand peculiarities; one was that they discarded all speculation and science whatever; the other, that they insisted on the most rigid self-denial. One of the most famous of this sect was Diogenes. He carried the notions of Antisthenes to extravagance. Made up of eccentricities, he was always a censor, and his opposition to refinement often degenerated into rudeness. He satirized the instructions of other philosophers; having heard Plato define a man to be a two legged animal without wings, he stripped a cock of its feathers, and taking it into the Academy, exclaimed, "See Plato's

Man."
Antisthenes.

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

There are no writings of this sect except some fragments of

On the Cynics; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. x.-Barthelemy, Trav. of Anach. ch. vii.--Schöll, Hist. Litt. Gr. 11. 360.--The remains of Antisthenes are two discourses, given in Reiske (cited (99), 8th vol. ; and some sentences, given in J. Orelli, Opuscula &c. cited § 103. 1. The letters ascribed to him are in J. Orelli, Collectio &c. cited § 152. 1. $

§ 174. The Stoic sect may be said to have sprung from the Cynic. Its founder was Zeno, a native of the island of Cyprus. Brought to Athens by the mercantile pursuits of his father, he was accidentally introduced to the school of the Cynics, and from them he borrowed many of the notions of the sect he established. Zeno, however, visited the other schools which then existed and borrowed from all. The name Stoic was drawn from the Portico (P. 1. §74) where he gave his lectures.

The Stoics differed from the Cynics, in as much as the former devoted themselves much to speculative studies, which the latter wholly discarded; but they resembled the Cynics in some degree in their general austerity of manners and character. Indifference to pleasure or pain, adversity or prosperity, they inculcated as the state of mind essential to happiness. The doctrine of fate was one of their grand peculiarities; they considered all things as controlled by an eternal necessity, to which even the Deity submitted; and this was supposed to be the origin of evil.-Their system of morals was in general strict and outwardly correct, but one which was based upon and which greatly fostered a cold, self-relying pride. It approved of suicide, which was perpetuated by Zeno himself. Yet it stimulated to heroic deeds.

In logic they imitated the quibbles and sophisms of the Megaric sect. The story of the sophist Protagoras and his pupil well illustrates the absurd trifing of their dialectics. Their system of logic and metaphysics, however, presents a classification which bears, in some respects, a striking resemblance to that of Locke. Things are divided into four kinds; substances, qualities, modes, and relations. some views from Christianity. They speak of the world as destined to be The later Stoics are supposed to have borrowed destroyed in a vast conflagration, and succeeded by another new and pure. One of them, addressing a mother on the loss of her son, says, "The sacred assembly of the Scipios and Catos shall welcome the youth to the region of happy souls. Your father himself (for there all are known to all) shall embrace his grandson, and shall direct his eyes, now furnished with new light, along the course of the stars, with delight explaining to him the mysteries of nature, not from conjecture, but from certain knowledge.'

Among the most distinguished of the early disciples of this school were Cleanthes, immediate successor to Zeno (§ 72), and Chrysippus, who also became the public teacher in the school at Athens. The latter was celebrated as a disputant; "Give me doctrines," said he, "I will find arguments to support them." His industry, it is said, produced many hundred treatises; of which nothing remains except a few scattered citations. - Nor have we any written productions from Zeno, or any of the early stoics. The principal authors whose works remain are Epictetus and Antoninus, who lived after the Christian era.

On the Stoics; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. xi.--Cudworth, Int. System. ch. iv. § 25.--Adam Smith, Th. of Moral Sentiments, pt. vii. sect. 2. ch. i. (p. 115, ed. Bost. 1817.)--Th. Brown, On the Philos. of the Human Mind, lect. xcix. (p. 547. 3d vol. ed. And. 1822.)cf. § 193, 196.-J. C. F. Meyer, Commentatio in qua Stoic. doctr. eth. cum Christ. comparatur. Gött. 1823. 4. -On Epictetus and Antoninus ;

§175. The Academic sect originated with Plato, a native of Athens, descended on his father's side from Codrus, and on his mother's from Solon. In youth devoted to poetry and painting, he wrote a poem, but, after comparing it with Homer, committed it to the flames. Captivated by the lectures of Socrates, he left poetry for philosophy. After much travel through the East and also in Magna Græcia, he opened his school in a public grove, from which the sect derived the name of the Academy. (P. I. § 74.) Over his door was the inscription Οὐδεις αγεωμέτρητος εισίτω ; so much did he value mathematical science as a foundation for higher studies.

One of the peculiarities of the Platonic philosophy respected the relations of matter to mind. The system recognized a supreme intelligence, but maintained the eternity of matter; matter receives all its shapes from the will of

the intelligence, yet contains a blind refractory force which is the cause of all evil. The human soul consists of parts derived from both these, the intelligence and the matter; and all its impurity results from the inherent nature of the latter constituent. A very striking peculiarity was the doctrine respecting ideas. It was briefly this; that there exist eternal patterns, or types, or exemplars of all things; these exemplars are the only proper objects of science; to understand them is to know truth; on the other hand, all sensible forms, the appearances made to the several senses, are only shadows; the forms and shadows are addressed to the senses, the exemplars or types to the intellect. These exemplars were called ideas. The doctrines respecting matter and ideas essentially controlled the system of study in this sect, and their practical morality. To gain true science, one must turn away from the things around him and apply his mind in the most perfect abstraction to contemplate and find out the eternal original patterns of things. And to gain moral purity, he must mortify and deny the parts of the soul derived from matter, and avoid all familiarity with the shadows. Hence probably the readiness to embrace the Platonic system manifested among the Christians of the middle ages, when the mystic notion of cleansing the soul by solitude and penance became so common.

The Academic sect was very popular, and eminent philosophers successively taught its doctrines in the grove. Some adhered closely to the views of Plato, and were called disciples of the Old Academy, while others departed from them and formed successively the Middle and the New Academy. The Old was begun by Plato B. C. about 400; the Middle, by Arcesilaus, B. C. about 300; the New, by Carneades, B. C. about 180.- The distinguishing point of difference between the three branches was their opinion respecting the certainty of human knowledge. The Old Academy maintained that certain knowledge can be obtained, not of the sensible forms, but only of the eternal exemplars; the Middle, that there is a certainty in things, yet it is beyond the attainment of the human mind, so that positive assertion is improper; the New, that man has the means of knowledge, not infallible, but sufficiently certain for all his wants.

On the Academic sect; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. i.-Middleton's Life of Cicero, sect. 12.--Gillies Hist. Greece. ch. xxxii.--J. F. Herbart, De Platonici Systematis fundamento. Gött. 1805. 8.Ph. G. Van Heusde, Initia Philosophia Platonicæ. Lpz. 1827-31.-Johnson's or Cousin's Tennemann, § 128-138.-Edinb. Rev. July, 1837. Plato's Philos, and Bacon's compared.

§ 176. The Peripatetic sect grew out of the Academy, Aristotle its founder having been long a pupil to Plato. Having closed his labors as the teacher of Alexander, he returned to Athens, and his master, Plato, being dead, he commenced his Lectures in the Lyceum. (P. I. § 74.) He taught for 12 years. Accused of impiety by enemies and rivals, he retired to Chalcis, where he remained until his death.

The Peripatetics, according to the established practice of the philosophers, had their public and their secret doctrine, or the exoteric and esoteric. (P. I. § 72.) In his morning walk, Aristotle imparted the latter to his particular disciples; in his evening walk, he proclaimed the former, his public doctrine, to a mixed crowd of hearers. Very contradictory accounts have been given of the essential principles of Aristotle and his sect. But nothing perhaps was more distinctive than the system of syllogistic reasoning, which was introduced by the founder, and became so celebrated in subsequent ages, and for so long a period held the highest place in the plans of education.-Of the early disciples of this sect, Theophrastus and Strato were among the most eminent. They succeeded Aristotle as teachers in the Lyceum. Dicæarchus, the geographer, and Demetrius Phalereus, the rhetorician (§ 116), were also distinguished Peripatetics.

On the Peripatetics; Enfield, bk. ii. ch. ix.-Gillies, ch. xl.-Cudworth, ch. iv. 24.-Smith, Theory Mor. Sentiment, pt. vii. sect. 2. ch. i.-Mitford, ch. xci. § 1.-Edinb. Encycl. Aristotle. -Cousin's or Johnson's Tennemann, § 139-150.-On the Logic of Aristotle; Reid's Analysis of A.'s Logic.-Stewart, Elements of Phil. Human Mind, vol. 11, ch. iii.-J. Gillies, Analysis &c. in his Translation of A.'s Ethics and Politics. Lond. 1797. 2 vols. 4.-Th. Taylor, Diss. on the Philosophy of Aristotle. Lond. 1813. 4.

§177. We will next notice the sects which were derived from the Italic