his voyage until his store of provisions failed. How far he proceeded (a) has been a theme of much discussion. The age and authenticity of the Periplus

have also been a subject (b) of dispute.

(a) Rennell, Geogr. of Herodotus, §26.—Cf. Vierthaler, on the Peripl. of Hanno. Salzb.1798. 8. (b)Dodwell, Diss. in Hudson's Geogr. Min. cited § 208t. 2.-Bougainville, in the Mem. de l'Acad: des Inser. XXVI. and XXVIII.

3. Editions. Gelenius (with Arrian). Bas. 1533. 4.-Berkel. (with Stephanus Byzant.) Leyd. 1674. 12.-In Hudson, Geog. Min.-Separately, I. H. Bökler. Strasb. 1661.4.-Th. Falconer, with an Engl. transl. Oxf. 1797. 8. -J. L. Hug. 1808. 4. with a list of authors on the subject. Engl. transl. is given in Anthon's Lempriere, Hanno.

-An 4. There is extant another Periplus of an early date, that of Seylax of Caryanda, placed by some B. C. about 500.-Cf. Schöll, 11. 193.-This is found in Hudson's collection. - Separately, by I. Vossius, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1632. 4. Pytheas, of Massilia, at a later period, also wrote a Periplus. -See Bougainville, La vie et les ouvrages de Pytheas de Marseille, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. xix. p.146.-D'Anville, Navigation de Pytheas a Thule &c. in same Mam.&c. XXXVII. 436.

$215. Eratosthenes, of Cyrene, flourished B. C. about 230. He was a pupil of Callimachus and the philosopher Ariston, and distinguished as a mathematician and the first founder of scientific geography.

lu. He was also known as a poet, interpreter of the old comic writers, a chronologist, and author of popular philosophical writings. In youth he lived at Athens; afterwards at Alexandria, having the charge of its famous library. Of his numerous writings, pertaining to the mathematical sciences, we have only some imperfect fragments. These belong chiefly to the work entitled Ta yroygaqovuɛva, which consisted of 3 books, and contained the first attempt at the measurement of the earth. The loss of this work is much regretted. 2. In the 1st book, Eratosthenes treated of physical geography; in the 2d, of mathematical; and in the 3d, of political. What remains is preserved chiefly by extracts made by Strabo.-A treatise called KaraoTsQiouoi, explaining the constellations, has passed under his name, but on various grounds it is considered as not genuine.-Schöll, 111. 375, 385.

3. Editions. The fragments of Eratosthenes were published by Anchor. Gött. 1770. 4.More complete, Seidel. Gr. & Lat. Gött. 1789. 8.-Most full, and best, Bernhardy, Eratosthenica. Berl. 1822. 8. The Catasterismi were published first by J. Fell. Oxf. 1672. 8. Cf. § 71. 3.Gale, in his Opuse. Myth. Amst. 1688. 8.-Best, I. C. Schauback. Gött. 1795. 8.

216. Strabo was born at Amasea in Pontus, and lived about the time of Christ, under Augustus and Tiberius. By his travels through Egypt, Asia, Greece, and Italy, he was the better qualified to write his great work on geography.

lu. This is entitled Fewyoagiza, and consists of 17 books. It is not a mere register of names and places, but a rich store of interesting facts and mature reflections, and is of great utility in the study of ancient literature and art. The first two books are a sort of general introduction; the rest are occupied in descriptions of particular countries, their constitutions, manners, and religion, interwoven with notices of distinguished persons and events.

2. The 3d book describes Spain and the neighboring islands; the 4th, Gaul, Britain, and the islands adjacent, and the Alps with the tribes occupying them; the 5th and 6th treat of Italy, concluding with a survey of the Roman power; the 7th gives an account of the northern countries, and the nations on the Danube; the 8th, 9th, and 10th are devoted to Greece; the next six, from the 11th to the 16th, contain an account of Asia; and the 17th describes the countries of Africa. The 7th book has come to us in an imperfect state; the rest complete. — There is an abridgment or Chrestomathy of this work, made probably in the 10th century by some unknown Greek. There are also several collections of extracts from Strabo in manuscript. Strabo wrote a continuation of Polybius under the title of ̔Υπομνήματα Ιστορικά.

Schöll, v. 278.-Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v.-A. H. L. Heeren, De fontibus Geographicorum Strabonis. Gött. 1823. 8.

3. Editions.-Princeps, (in æd. Aldi.) Ven. 1516. fol.-Is. Casaubon, (2d ed. by Morel.) Par. 1620. fol. Gr. & Lat. Considered good.-Almeloveen, Gr. & Lat. Amst. 1707. fol. Repr. of CaRaubon, with additional notes.-Siebenkees, (continued by Tzschucke and Friedemann,) Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1796-1819. 7 vols. 8.-Th. Falconer, Gr. & Lat. Oxf. 1807. 2 vols. fol. The most ample ed. (yet censured.) Cf. Edinb. Rev. vol. xiv.-Class. Jour. vi. 45; v11. 152, 445.-Coray.

Par. 1816-19. 4 vols. 8. Best text; preface and notes in Greek. in Hudson's Geograph. Min. cited $208t. 2.

The Chrestomathy is found

4. Translations.-German.-Penzel. Lemg. 1775-77. 4 vols. 8.-K. Kärcher, in the Collec. of New Transl. by Tafel, Osiander, &c.-French.-La Porte du Theil and Coray, (under patronage of Fr. Gov.) Par. 1805-14. 5 vols. 4. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. 273.

§ 217. Dionysius, of Charax in Persia, was a contemporary of Strabo. He was sent by Augustus into the East in order to prepare a description of those regions for the use of his adopted son.

1 u. We have from him a geographical treatise in Hexameter verse, entitled Περιήγησις Οικουμένης, a description of the habitable world. From the title of this piece he has received the surname of Periegetes. Cf. § 32.

2. We have a learned commentary on the Periegesis written by Eustathius.-The Periegesis is in the 4th vol. of Hudson, as cited § 208t. 2. with the Commentary.-Also in Matthia's Aratus, cited $71. 3.-Separately, an improved edition, Hudson, Oxf. 1717. 8. With H. Dodwell's Diss. de ætate et patria Dionysii.

$218. Claudius Ptolemæus, of Pelusium in Egypt, flourished in the middle of the 2d century, at Alexandria. He acquired great distinction in the sciences of geography, astronomy, and music.

1 u. Among the writings left by him, the two most important are the Mayάλη σύνταξις, Great Construction, and the Γεωγραφική υφήγησις, a system of Geography. The former, consisting of 13 books, now called the Almagest, is the earliest formal system of astronomy. The latter, in 8 books, gives a ge ographical account of countries and places, with a designation of their Latitude and Longitude, for which the labors of Marinus of Tyre had laid the foundation. Of the other works of Ptolemy now extant we mention particularly his Karov Baoiλion, Table of Kings, which is of much value in the department of history and chronology.

2. The astronomical observations of Ptolemy were probably made in the Serapeum, or tenple of Serapis, at Alexandria, and not in the Serapeum of Canopus. The name of Almagest is derived from the title which the Arabians gave to Ptolemy's astronomical work, to express their admiration. It was translated into the Arabic in the 9th century with the patronage and aid of Caliph Almamoun. From the Arabic it was translated into Spanish and into Latin, before the Greek original was known in Europe. In the last book of the Geography, Ptolemy states the method of preparing maps, and here are found the first principles of projection. The Jasting reputation of this work has been mentioned (§ 207).-Schöll, vol. v. 240-260, 312–323. -Bonamy, Des Cartes geographiques des anciens &c. Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxv. p. 40.

3. Editions.-ALMAGEST; Grynæus, Gr. & Lat. Basil, 1538. fol. With the Comm. of Theon. -Abbé Halma, Gr. & Fr. Par. 1813-15. 2 vols. 4.GEOGRAPHY; Princeps, Erasmus. Basil, 1533. fol. (There had previously been several editions of the Latin. Cf. Schöll, v. 319.)Montanus, Gr. & Lat. Frankf. (and Amst.)1605. fol. With maps by G. Mercator, after those of Agathodamon, an Alexandrine of the 5th century.-Better, P. Bertius. Leyd. 1618. fol.-Halma. Par. 1828. 4. But containing only 1st book and part of 7th, with a French version.CANON; Perizonius. Leyd. 1745. 8.-Halma. Par. 1820. 4.-The Hypothesis of the Planets, by Halma, Gr. & Gall. Par. 1820. 4.-For other works of Ptolemy and editions, see Schöll, vol. v. p. 255 ss.

$219. Pausanias, according to some born at Cæsarea in Cappadocia, perhaps however a native of Lydia, flourished in the 2d century. He traveled over Greece, Macedonia, Italy, and a great part of Asia.

1 u. In advanced life, at Rome, in the reigns of Hadrian and the Antonines, he composed his Itinerary of Greece, Elñúdos nequynors. It consists of 10 books, which are frequently named from the provinces described in them. The work is full of instructive details for the antiquarian, especially in reference to the history of art, as the author makes a point of describing the principal temples, edifices, statues, and the like. This gives his work an interest it would not otherwise possess.

2. The style of Pausanias is rather negligent; sometimes his descriptions are obscure; but he displays much judgment and knowledge, and casts light on very many topics of history and mythology.-Schöll, v. 307.

3. Editions.-Princeps, by Aldus (ed. M. Musurus). Ven. 1516. fol.-Xylander. Frankf. 1583. fol.- Kuhn, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1696. fol.-Better, Facius, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1794-97. 4 vols. 8.I. Bekker. Berl. 1826. 2 vols. 8. Critical text.-Best, Siebelis, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1822–28. 3 vols. 8.

4. Translations.- -German.-J. E. Goldhagen. Berl. 1798. 5 vols. 8.-French.-E. Clavier (and others). Par. 1814-20. 6 vols. With original Greek and notes.English.-Th. Taylor. Lond. 1793. 3 vols. 8. Illustrated by Maps and views.

5. Illustrative.-F. S. C. Cönig, De Paus. fide et auctoritate in historia, mythologia, artibusque Græcorum tradendis. Berl. 1832. 8.-Heyne, Ueber den Kasten des Cypselus &c. nach dem Pausanias. Gött. 1770. 8.

§ 220 u. Stephanus of Byzantium was a grammarian and geographer, who lived towards the close of the 5th century. He wrote a copious grammatical and geographical Dictionary, called 'Evizú. Of the original work we have merely a fragment. There is an abridgment, however, 'Evizāv dπitoμÝ, styled also Пaqi nólawr, made by the grammarian Hermolaus in the time of Justinian.

The best edition of the Epitome is that of A. Berkel (completed by Gronovius). Leyd. 1688. fol. Amst. 1725. fol.

§ 220. Cosmas Indicopleustes was a native of Alexandria, who died about A. D. 550. He traveled in Ethiopia and India. His geographical work, in 12 books, is entitled Xoriana Tonoyqaqia. He supposed the earth to be of a plane surface, and in the form of a parallelogram; and thought this to be the only view consistent with the representations of the Bible.

His Topography is given in B. de Montfaucon, Collect. Nov. Patrum Græc. Par. 1706. 2 vols. fol. Gr. & Lat.-A Description of Plants and Animals of India is given in Thevenot, Relations de Voyages Curieux (Par. 1666), as the work of Cosmas. Cf. Gibbon, Rom. Emp. iv. 67, 428

-

§221. Onesander and Polyanus have been named as prominent writers on military subjects. The work of the former is entitled Frgarηyızòs 2óyos, in 42 chapters. That of the latter is entitled Ergarnynuatixa, in 8 books; it is highly recommended by Harwood, for beginners in Greek, on account of its easy style and entertaining matter.

1. Editions of Onesander. First, by N. Rigault, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1599. 4. N. Schwebel Nuremb. 1761. fol. with the French version of Zurlauben, and engravings of ancient military engines. Coray. Par. 1822. 8. with Zurlauben's version, forming the 5th vol. of his Parerga de la Bibl. Hellénique.

2. Editions of Polyænus.-First, by I. Casaubon, Gr. & Lat. Lyons, 1589. 12.-Best, by Coray. Par. 1809. as the 1st vol. of his Bibl. Hel.-There is an Engl. transl. by R. Shepherd. Lond.1793. 4.

VIII-Mythographers.

§ 221 u. The principal existing sources, whence the traditions and fables of the Greeks may be learned, are three; the poets, who bring forward mythical ideas and fabrications, either incidentally, or as the subjects of particular songs; the historians, who weave into their narratives the popular faith and tales, and make known historical circumstances which serve to illustrate the same; and finally the mythographers, who have made it their particular business to treat of mythological subjects and to present connected views or specific details of the ancient fables. Some of the principal writers of the latter class will be named in the following sections.

The following Collections pertain to this subject. Aldus (Fabulists). Ven. 1505. fol. - Th. Gale, Historiæ poetica scriptores antiqui. Par. 1675. 8. — - By same, Opuscula mythologica &c. Camb. 1671. 8.-Amst. 1688. 8.

$222. Palaphatus, an Athenian, probably lived about B. C. 320; some place him in the time of Homer, but without sufficient grounds lu. His book Пgi aniorov, on things incredible, contains 50 Muthi, or fables, with an explanation of them. It is probably but a corrupted abridgment of the first part of the larger work, in 5 books, ascribed to this author, but now lost. The style is very simple and easy, and the contents amusing and instructive; it is often used as a reading-book in teaching the elements of the Greek lan

guage.

2. Editions. It is found in Aldus, and Gale, Opusc. cited § 221u.-Separately, best, † J. F. Fischer, Lpz. 1789. 8. — H. N. Ernesti. Lpz. 1816. 8. with a Lexicon; for schools. 3. Translations. — German. —J. D. Büchling. Hal. 1821. 8.

1771. 12.

French. - Polier. Lausanne,

4. Euhemerus, supposed to have been a native of Messene, lived about the same time with Palephatus. He wrote a work entitled 'Iega àrayoagh, the object of which was to show that the mythological deities were mortals, who had conferred benefits upon their fellow-men, and on that account were deified.

This was translated by Ennius into Latin. Both the original and the version are lost, with the exception of some passages in Eusebius and Lactantius.

Cf. Schöll, Litt. Gr. vol. 111. p. 249. Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. vol. 1. 94. ed. Phil. 1827.-8evin, and Foucher, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. vol. vin.107. xxxiv. 417.

$223. Heraclitus was a grammarian, whose epoch and history are wholly unknown. He is to be distinguished from the philosopher of Ephesus bearing the same name (§ 177).

1u. He is mentioned as the author of two mythographical works, one enti tled Περὶ ἀπίστων, Of things incredible; the other, Αλληγορίαι Ομηρικαί, Homeric Allegories. The former seems to be a mere abridgment. The latter is a more considerable work, but gives the most forced and unnatural explanations to the fictions of the poet. It derives value from containing poetical fragments of Archilochus, Alcæus, Eratosthenes, and others.

2. The first work is given in Gale, Opusc. cited § 221u.-Separately, by L.H. Teucher. Lemg. 1796. 8. school ed. The other, in Gale also. - Separately, by C. Gessner, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1544. 8. as the work of Heraclides of Pontus. - Better, by N. Schow. Gött. 1782. 8. A German translation by J. G. Schulthess. Zür. 1779. 8.

3. There is another work extant with the title IIɛgi aniora. It is from an unknown author, who is suposed to have lived much later, about the time of the emperor Leo the Thracian. It contains 22 sections, and appears to be an abstract of a larger work. Published by L. Allatius. Rome, 1641. 8.-Gale, in Opusc. cited above.-Teucher, with Heraclitus cited above.

S224. Apollodorus, a son of Asclepiades, was a grammarian, who lived at Athens, B. C. about 145. He was a pupil of Aristarchus and embraced the Stoic philosophy.

lu. According to Photius he wrote a History of the gods (Пepi rov), in 24 books. We have, however, only 3 books under the title of Bißhodnjan, or Library, which may be an abridgment of the forementioned, but perhaps is a wholly different work. It contains a brief account of the gods and heroes before the Trojan war.

2. It is given in Gale, Hist. Poet. cited § 221u.-Separately, best, Heyne. Gött. 1802. 2 vols. & -E. Clavier, Gr. & Fr. 1805. 2 vols. 8.-For schools, C. L. Sommer. Rudolst. 1823. 8.-German Translation, by F. Beyer. Herborn, 1802. 8.-Cf. Schöll, v. 36. 1 v.57.

$225. Conon, also known as a grammarian, lived at Athens in the time of Cæsar and Augustus, B. C. about 40.

1u. He wrote 50 mythical Narratives, Anyiosis, which are now extant only in the abstracts given by Photius in his Bibliotheca (§142). They are addressed to Archelaus, king of Cappadocia. Although containing little that is peculiarly interesting, they are yet of some value in illustrating ancient history, relating particularly to the origin of colonies.

2. They are given in Gale, Hist. Poet. cited § 221u.--Separately, J. A. Kanne. Gött. 1798. 8.— - French translation, by Abbe Gedoyne, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inscr. tom. xiv. p. 170. — Cf. Schöll, v. 41.

$226. Parthenius, born at Nicea, lived under the emperor Augustus, and is said to have been one of the preceptors of Virgil.

1u. He wrote a work dedicated to Cornelius Gallus, and entitled Пegi lowTIZOV πaðŋuάtwv, On amorous affections, designed to furnish that poet with materials for song. The narratives contained in it were drawn from the old poets, and clothed in an easy and prosaic style. He seems to have written other works, both in prose and verse, although the elegiac poet of this name mentioned by Suidas was perhaps another person.

2. The work is found in Gale, as last cited.-Separately, Cornarius, Gr. & Lat. (printer Froben) Bas. 1531. 8.-Teucher. Lpz. 1802. 8. with Conon.-Best, Legrand and Heyne. Gött. 1798. 8. with Conon. For the account of Parthenius by Suidas, see Schöll, v. 42.

$227. Phurnutus, or more correctly Annæus Cornutus, born at Leptis in Africa, probably lived in the last half of the 1st century. He seems to have been the teacher of Persius, and a disciple of the Stoic sect in philosophy.

1u. We have from him a Theory of the nature of the gods, Orwoia negi The TWV Oear Quoεws, in 35 sections. It is an attempt to solve the common fables by the help of allegories, mostly of a forced and extravagant character.

2. Given in Gale, Opusc. Myth. cited § 221u.-Villoison left the Apparatus for a new edition; now in the Royal Library of France. (Schöll, v. 179.)-On Cornutus see Enfield's Hist. Phil. bk. iii. ch. ii. §7.-D. Martini Disputatio de L. Ann. Cornuto. Lugd. Bat. 1825. 8.

228. Hephaestion (cf. § 134), often called Ptolemæus son of Hephæstion, was a native of Alexandria, and lived in the 2d century under Trajan.

1 u. His mythological work bore the title Περί τῆς εἰς πολυμάθειαν καινῆς iorogias, Of new history pertaining to erudition; it consisted of 7 books, but we have only the brief extracts found in Photius.

2. Published by Gale, Hist. Poet. before cited.-By L. H. Teucher, with Canon and Partheniu. Lpz. 1802. 8.-Cf. Schöll, v. 43.

$229. Antoninus Liberalis, of whom little is known with certainty, most probably lived in the 2d century under the Antonines.

1u. His Collection of metamorphoses, Merаuoppáσsw_ovraywyn, is a compilation gathered from various writers, in 41 sections. The style is very unequal, and shows that the author drew his materials from poetical sources.

2. Contained in Gale, Hist. Poet.-Given by J. G. Walch, in his Phædrus. Lpz. 1713. 12.Separately, Princeps by Xylander (Holzmann). Basil, 1568. 8.—Munker, Gr. & Lat. 1676. 12.Better, Verheyk, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1774. 8.-A school ed. by Teucher. Lpz. 1806. 8. With the Fables of Gabrias. Cf. § 184. 1.-On Antoninus and other mythographers, see Bast, Lettre Critique; in Lat. transl. by Schäfer, Lpz. 1809. 8.

$230. Sallustius, who was a Platonic philosopher in the time of Julian and Jovian, and was Consul A. D. 363, may be mentioned here. 1a. He must not be confounded with Sallust the Latin historian, nor with the Cynic of the same name in later times. He lived at Athens and Alexandria, and acquired much celebrity as a speaker. He has left a work entitled Ilapi deor zai xóoμov, On the gods and the world, in 21 chapters. It is perhaps a philosophical rather than mythological treatise, and seems to be directed specially against the system of Epicurus. The author maintains the eter

nity of the world and the immortality of the soul.

2. Published first by Naudeus, Gr. & Lat. Rome, 1638. 12.- Gale, Opusc. Myth. above cited. -Formey, Gr. & Fr. Berl. 1748. 8.-J. C. Orelli, Gr. & Lat. Zür. 1821. 8.-The titles of the chapters are given in Schöll, v11. 80.-German translation, by Schulthess. Zürich, 1779. 8.

IX-Historians and Biographers.

§231 u. In very early times the Greeks, like other nations of antiquity, had few, if any, regular historical records. The art of writing was not brought into that frequent and general use which is requisite for such purposes. Oral traditions, visible monuments, and commemorative festivals were the principal means of transmitting a knowledge of important and interesting facts. The oral accounts were commonly thrown into the form of verse and song; and thus the poets were the first historians. Their poems, in epic, lyric, and dramatic forms, presented the story of the fabulous and heroic ages, and were impressed on the memory in youthful education; were sung at the festivals of the gods and the funeral celebrations of heroes, and afterwards circulated by means of written copies. When afterwards the use of writing became more common, and prose composition began to be cultivated, historical narrative was the first and principal application of it. - Pherecydes, of the island Leros, and the three Milesians, Dionysius, Cadmus, and Hecateus, who lived between 550 and 500 B. C., are named as the earliest authors of history in prose. At this period truth and fable were more carefully distinguished; the former was selected as the proper material for prose and history, and the latter was left to the sole use of the poet. Afterwards writers began to record the history of their own times and connect it with the traditionary accounts of former ages. The art of writing was more sedulously cultivated.