mer and also of Lemnos. It is in some respects valuable for artists, although wanting in precision and simplicity.

The books on painting have received attention from modern writers. - There is a work on statues, by Callistratus, of an unknown era, which is usually joined with them.-Count Caylus, Mem. Acad. Inser. tom. xxix. - Heyne, in his Opusc. Acad. vol. v. Fr. Jacobs, Animad. in Callistrati statuas et Philost. imagines. Lips. 1797. 8.-Rehfues über den jüngern Philost. u. seine Gemäldbeschreib. Tüb. 1800. 8.

4. We have other works by Philostratus. In a piece called 'Howïzu, he gives the fabulous history of 21 heroes of the Trojan war. He has left also about 70 letters, and an epigram found in the Anthologies. But a more interesting and valuable work is his Lives of the Sophists, Bio oogiator, in 2 books. One book gives the biography of 26 philosophical sophists; the other, of 33 rhetorical sophists. It contains a fund of anecdotes illustrating the manners and morals of these ostentatious pretenders, and gives a vivid picture of the decline of genuine eloquence.-Schöll, iv. 190.

5. Editions. Of the complete works, there have been two editions.-Morel. Par. 1608. fol.Olearius. Lpz. 1709. fol. containing also Philostratus the younger.- -After the edition of Olearius, no part of Phil. was published (according to Schöll, 1v. 298) until the Heroica by Boissonade, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1806. 8.- - Imagines, by F. Jacobs & F. T. Weleker. Lips. 1825. 8. containing also Callistratus on statues. — Cf. G. J. Bekker, var. lect. et observ. in Philost, vit. Apollon. &c. Heidelb. 1818.-C. L. Kayser, Not. erit. in Philost. Vit. Sophistarum. Heidelb. 1831. 8. 6. Translations. - German.-Whole works, by Seybold. Lemg. 1777. 2 vols. —— English. Lives of Sophists, by Ed. Berwick. Lond. 1812. 8. Also Life of Apollonius. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. 111. 417.-French.-Life of Apollonius, by Castillon. Berl. 1774. 4 vols. 12.

$255c. Eunapius was a native of Sardis. He studied in Athens, and traveled in Egypt, and afterwards officiated in Lydia as a pagan priest. He is named here on account of his work entitled Βίοι φιλοσόφων καὶ σοφιστῶν,which contains notices of 23 philosophers and sophists, who lived in his time, or not long before. It betrays his hostility to the Christian system.-Cousin, Nouv. Fragm. Phil. (p. 200) cited §171.

There have been four editions of Eunapius. Princeps, by Ad. Junghe (Junius), Gr. & Lat. Antw. 1568. 8. The last, and best, by J. F. Boissonade, Gr. only. Amst. 1822. 2 vols. 8. with notes.-Cf. Schöll, v11. 70.

256. Zosimus flourished in the 5th century. He held the office of Comes Fisci at Constantinople.

lu. His New History, Nia IoTogía, in 6 books, embraces the reigns of the emperors from Augustus down to A. D. 410. The style is pure, perspicuous, and not destitute of ornament. But he is by no means an impartial writer, and appears to have been strongly prejudiced against Christianity.

2. Polybius had exhibited the causes which contributed to the rise of Roman grandeur. Zosimus, in imitation of this distinguished writer, proposed to trace the causes of its decline. His object and plan were good, but he had not the requisite qualifications for the task. Among the causes he erroneously ranks the establishment of the Christian religion.—Schöll, vi. 338–348.

3. The best editions; Reitemeier, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1784. 8. (Fuhrmann.) — I. Bekker. Bonn. 1838. 8. in Niebuhr's Corpus, cited § 239a. — The first complete ed. was in Sylburg's collection, Script. Hist. Rom. Franc. 1590.

4. Translations. - Gerinan. Cousin.

Seybold and Heyler. Frankf. 1802. 2 vols. 8. French, by

$257. Procopius, a native of Cæsarea in Palestine, flourished in the 6th century, as a sophist and lawyer at Constantinople. He was a friend to Belisarius, and held for a long time the office of prefect of the Capital.

lu. He wrote a History of his own times, in 8 books, Tov zað úνtor (OTOOLO Biphia ozto. The work is divided into 2 tetrades, the first 4 books being called Persic, and the last 4 Gothic, including a period of 70 years, A. D. 482-552. The former portion describes the wars of the Romans, both with the Persians and with the Vandals and Moors in Africa; and the latter, those with the Goths. He has left also a work styled 'Avizdota, which is a secret history of the Court of Constantinople under Justinian; and another called Kriouata, Buildings, in 6 books, in which he describes the various, works constructed or repaired by Justinian. His style has the merit of accuracy and clearness.

2. The Corpus of Byz. Hist. (cited § 239) includes the three works of Procopius, edit. by C. Maltret, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1662, 63. 3 vols. fol.-ed. by G. Dindorf, 1833. 3 vols. 8. in the Corpus &c. Cf. § 239a.—A German translation of the secret history, by J. P. Reinhard. Erlang. 1753. 8.

258. Agathias, of Myrina in Æolis, has already been mentioned as an author of Epigrams and editor of an Anthology ($34, 35). He was a Christian jurist or advocate, of the Alexandrine school, and lived at Constantinople in the 6th century.

lu. We have from him a continuation of the history of Procopius, through 7 additional years, in a work entitled Περὶ τῆς Ἰουστινιανοῦ βασιλείας, On the reign of Justinian.

2. This work is divided into 5 books. His style has been thought to suffer from the author's habits as a poet. He speaks of himself as being especially fond of poetry from his youth. His History derives much of its value from an account it contains of Persian institutions and usages drawn directly by him from Persian writings.-Schöll, vi. 377.—For. Rev. No. 11.

3. The first edition was by B. Vulcanius, Gr. & Lat. Leyd. 1594. 4. --Included in the Corp. Byz. Par. 1660. fol. with his epigrams.-Bý B. G. Niebuhr, Gr. & Lat. 1828. 8. in his ed. of the Corpus Byz.

$259. Zonaras (Johannes) flourished at Constantinople in the 11th and 12th centuries. He was raised to distinguished honors in the court of the emperor Alexius Comnenus, but resigned them and retired as a monk to Mt. Athos.

lu. Of many works composed by him in the latter part of his life, we notice as belonging here his Annals, Xoorizór, in 18 books, including a general history from the beginning of the world down to A. D. 1118. It consists of abridgments or extracts from larger works, and exhibits great inequality of style. The history of the Jews is given first, then that of the Greeks and of the Roman Republic, and lastly that of the Roman Empire. In the latter part he closely follows Dion Cassius.

2. Another work of Zonaras was an Exegesis on the Canons of the Apostles, Synods, and Fathers. He left also a Lexicon or Glossary, which is useful as a concomitant to that of Hesychius.-Schöll, vi. 288, 358. v11. 241.

3. The Annals were first published by Wolf, Gr. & Lat. Bas. 1551. 3 vols. fol.-Repr. in Corp. Byz. Ducange, ed. 1686. — The Exegesis is in Beveridge, Synodicon sive Pandect. canonum 8. S. apost. concil. ab eccles. Græc. receptorum. 1672. 2 vols. fol. Lexicon, by Tittmann (cf. $142. 4). Lpz. 1808. 3 vols. 4.

$260. Dares the Phrygian, and Dictys the Cretan, may be mentioned in closing our list of names in the department of history. Their era is uncertain, and their value trifling.

1. Homer (Il. v. 9) mentions Dares as a priest of Vulcan at Troy. Ælian (Var. Hist. xi. 2.) states that an Iliad or history of the Trojan war by Dares was extant in his times; yet this work was probably not from the Trojan priest, but the fabrication of some sophist. There is extant a work in Latin, entitled De excidio Troja historia, which has been taken for a translation made by Cornelius Nepos from the Greek of Dares. It is now admitted to be merely the prose outline of a poem in 6 cantos by Joseph Iscanius, who was an English poet of the 12th century, born at Exeter in Devonshire, and called Iscanius from Isca the ancient name of Exeter, and sometimes Daronius from his native county. (Cambden's Britannia, p.133. Publ. in Latin 1607. fol. English, by Gibson, 1617.)

2. There was a kindred fabrication in Greek, made by Praris, in the name of Dictys Cretensis, who is said to have served in the Trojan war, and to have kept a journal (quegis) of its events. The original Greek is lost; but there is a Latin version in 6 books. Cf. § 238, 522.-Schöll, iv. 107.

3. The pretended works of Dares and Dictys (§ 238) are supposed to have been the original source of the famous romance of chivalry by Guido dalle Colonne (de Columna), a Sicilian lawyer and poet of the 13th century. This romance, the second that was written of the chivalric class, was translated from the Latin into all the languages of Europe, and received with universal enthusiasm. The first romance of this class is traced to an eastern origin in a Persian tale of Alexander the Great, translated first into Greek and then into Latin.-Schöll, vrt. 3-5. 194-96. -Fabricius, Biblioth. Lat. vol.1. p. 116.-W. Ouseley, on some extraordinary anecdotes of Alexander; in the Transact. of the Roy. Soc. of Literature, vol. 1. Lond. 1829.

4. Dares and Dictys have usually been published together. The first edition was printed, Milan,1477.-The best edition is that of Perizonius. Amst. 1702. 8. a reimp. of Madame Dacier's (Par. 1680. 4), and containing the poem of Joseph Iscanius (cf. § 522). -These works were translated in the 16th century into the Italian, French, and German. A Russian version was published, Mosc. 1712. 8. Cf. Fabricius, above cited, p. 112.

HISTORY OF GREEK LITERATURE.

X-Writers on Medicine and Natural History.

§261u. The science of Medicine is founded essentially upon observation and experience, and is one of those which were but imperfectly understood in ancient times. Indeed, from the nature of the case, it could not be brought to perfection until later periods. The same is true, to a considerable extent, of Natural History and Physics in general. Yet these sciences were pursued But their success in

among the Greeks not without some zeal and success. them can by no means be compared with that which they enjoyed so peculiarly and happily in literature and the fine arts.At first the practice of medicine was limited almost wholly to the curing of external wounds. The great renown which Esculapius († Аozhýπos, cf. P. III. § 84.) and his descendants called the Asclepiades obtained, is a proof of the novelty and rarity of the healing art in those times, in which. in fact it was considered as a miraculous gift from the gods. The Asclepiades established several schools in medicine, of which those at Rhodes, Cos, and Cnidus were the most celebrated. It was not until a later period that the Greeks became acquainted with anatomy. Hippocrates was the first who investigated the science systematically, or wrote upon the subject.

There is a brief collection of rules of health ascribed to the Asclepiades, entitled 'Дozâηαdar vyɛirà лаQayyihuaтα. Found in J. C. d'Aretin, Beyträge zur Gesch. der Lit. vol. 13. -and in Schöll, Hist. Litt. Gr. vol. 1. p.11.

§262. After Hippocrates, the physicians of the same period, between Solon and Alexander, seem to have in a great measure abandoned the guidance of experience, and plunged into the labyrinths of speculation. The school termed the Dogmatic was now established, which attempted to unite the theories of the philosophers with the principle of Hippocrates. The sons of Hippocrates are named among its founders. The most distinguished of this school were Diocles of Carystus in Euboea, and Praxagoras of Cos. ings of the former we have have a few fragments. Of the medical writ

The fragments of Diocles are published in C. G. Kühn, De Medicis Græcis &c. Lips. 1820. 4. -Cf. Schöll, 111. 402.

§ 263. It was by the physicians at Alexandria that the actual dissection of the human body was first attempted. Among the earlier physicians of the Alexandrine school, the most distinguished were Herophilus and Erasistratus, who lived under the first Ptolemies, and were each the head of a class of followers. Among the adherents of the former soon arose the Empiric school, founded by Philinus of Cos, and Serapion of Alexandria. To this school most of the physicians of the period before the fall of Corinth attached themselves. They professed to follow the lessons of experience (unsigía). — One of the most illustrious of the Empirics was Dioscorides, who will be noticed below (§ 271). We may mention also Apollonius of Citium, and Xenocrates of Aphrodisium, as of some eminence.

It was towards the close of this era that the medical art of the Greeks was introduced among the Romans, by Archagathus; it had been, at first, chiefly practiced by Greek slaves. The physician that seems to have acquired the highest celebrity at Rome, was Asclepiades of Bithynia, B. C. about 100. He may be assigned to the Empiric school, although he professed to have peculiar notions of his own.

C. F. H. Beck, De Schola medicorum Alexandrica. Lips. 1810. 4.-Schöll, 111. 404. v. 335. The work of Xenocrates (on the nourishment furnished by aquatic productions), by Coray. Par. 1814. 8.-The remains of Asclepiades of B. were published by Gumpert, Asclep. Bith. Fragmenta. Vimar. 1794. 8. - The name of Asclepiades was borne by many different persons. Cf. Harless, Medicorum vet. Asclepiades dictorum lustratio &c. Bon. 1828.

§ 264. In the period succeeding the fall of Corinth a new school arose, called the Methodic or Methodistic, founded B. C. about 90, by Themison of Laodicea, who was a disciple of Asclepiades, and fixed himself as a physician at Rome. The system was matured by Soranus of Ephesus, who practiced at Rome under Trajan and Hadrian with brilliant success, and has left several works. To this school belonged Criton, also celebrated in the time of Trajan, and Moschion, the reputed author of a work on Diseases still extant. - Within the limits of the same period, another medical sect was originated, the Eclectic, which is generally ascribed to Archigenes, another physician in the time of Trajan. Aretaus, whose works will be noticed below, was an eminent advocate

of this school. Rufus of Ephesus was an eminent physician not assigned to any of the sects; his works are still considered valuable. But the name which is most important, not only in the space between Augustus and Constantine, but in fact in the whole history of the Greek physicians, is that of Galen. With transcendant genius he broke from the restraints imposed by the different medical sects, and built a system for himself upon the ruins of them all, and became and continued for many centuries the oracle of the art.

The works of Soranus are in Ant. Cocchi, cited below, $269. That of Moschion, separately, F. 0. Dewez. Vienn. 1793. 8.-Those of Rufus, by W. Clinch. Lond. 1726. 4.-Schall, v. 338. § 265. During the long period from Constantine to the capture of Constantinople, no progress was made in the science. Alexandria continued for a long time the chief seat for the theory and science of medicine, while Rome and Constantinople furnished ample fields for its practice. Most of those who attempted to write on the subject, contented themselves with commenting upon the works of Galen or some author of times previous to their own. They formed what is called the School of Galen, although they professed to be Eclectic, and to draw their principles from all the different sects. There are but few names which are specially deserving of mention. Oribasius, in the time of Julian, is the first writer of any note; he has been called the ape of Galen, on account of borrowing so much from him; among his works was a medical compilation from preceding writers, made by order of Julian, and called 'Edounzorráßißlos, from its comprising 70 books, 8 or 9 of which yet remain in Greek, and several others in Latin only. Atius of Amida in Mesopotamia, was a physician at Constantinople, in the 6th century. He left a compilation from the earlier medical authors under the title of Bhíov largizov, in 16 books. Alexander, of Tralles in Lydia, flourished in the reign of Justinian, and after much travel practiced in Rome with great celebrity; his Therapeutics, Bißior SepaлEUTIZOV, in 12 books, is extant. Paul of Egina may also be mentioned as a practical physician, and as the author of a compilation entitled an Abridgment of all Medicine. We will add only the name of Constantine, surnamed the African, a native of Carthage. He studied among the Arabians, Chaldeans, and Persians, both medicine and astronomy, with the kindred sciences. turning to the west after an absence of nearly forty years, he was regarded as a sorcerer, and finally retired, in a religious habit, to Salernum in Italy, where the monks of Mont-Cassin had established a medical school. Here he employed himself until his death, towards the close of the 11th century, in making known the Greek and Arabian medicine, and contributed much to the high celebrity which that school attained.

Re

An edition of Oribasius in Latin was published, Bas. 1537. 3 vols. 8. but not complete.-The Works of Alexander are given in the collection of Haller (cf. § 269).-The Latin version of Ætius by J. Cornarius and J. Montanus is also in Haller.-Paul of g. was published by Remusaus. Bas. 1538. fol. There is an English version by F. Adams.-Constantine left numerous works, but in the Latin language-Schall, v11. 247 ss.

§266u. Physics, or Natural Science, formed a prominent object of many of the first Greek philosophers, and furnished subjects for some of the earliest didactic poems. The study of philosophy in later periods usually implied some attention to these branches. But for want of sufficient observation, and of the necessary helps, many errors were adopted and long retained in the Grecian schools.

$267. The merit of first treating these subjects systematically and scientifically is universally ascribed to Aristotle. Alexander is said to have aided his studies in natural history with a princely liberality. Theophrastus, the disciple and successor of Aristotle, pursued the same studies with considerable success. While Aristotle is called the father of Zoology, Theophrastus must be acknowledged to stand in the same relation to Mineralogy and Botany.-Among the Alexandrine scholars, the subjects of natural science seem to have obtained but comparatively little attention. This could not have been owing wholly to want of encouragement, because the Ptolemies are said to have expended considerable sums in procuring collections of what was curious in the three kingdoms of nature. Antigonus of Carystus is the principal Alexandrine writer of whom we have remains pertaining to this department, and his work is chiefly a collection of marvelous stories, and not a description of natural objects. Nor under the Roman supremacy, from the fall of Corinth even to the time of

Constantine, do we find any manifest advancement. The chief writers were Dioscorides, who was distinguished as a botanist (Coróuos) as well as physi cian, and Elian, who compiled a considerable work on the history of animals. The superstition and love of the marvelous, which prevailed both in this and in the precedIng period, were probably a hindrance to the real progress of natural science. We may refer, as evidence of their influence, to the works of Melampus in the former, and Artemidorus in the latter. Melampus wrote on the art of divination in several branches, and also a work on Prognostics from the changes in the moon, which is yet in manuscript in the library of Vienna.-Artemidorus left a work on the Interpretation of dreams, 'Ovɛigozgıtıza, which, with all its absurdity, is of some value in illustrating mythology and the symbolical and allegorical figures of ancient sculpture. It was published by J. G. Reiff. Lpz. 1805. 2 vols. 8. Cf. Schall, 111. 393 ss.

v. 277 ss.

§268. Under the emperors of Constantinople, all the sciences connected with the study of nature were in a state of almost utter neglect; in the whole time we do not meet with a single name of any eminence, nor one work of special value. We find a treatise of Epiphanius, ПIɛgi tây dódɛza kíðar, On the 12 stones in the breastplate of the Jewish high-priest; and another, Пegi ziv durauer, On the virtues of stones, by Michal Psellus, in the 9th century. We have a large compilation on agriculture, entitled 'storiza, in 20 books, by Cassianus Bassus, in the 10th century. We have likewise a compilation on the veterinary art, in 2 books, entitled 'InaTQiza, collected by an unknown writer, by order of the emperor Constantine VI. Porphyrogenitus. There are also several works, yet in manuscript, on Chemistry, or rather Alchemy, or the art of making gold; especially one by Stephanus of Athens, in the 7th century, Hegi zovooлotias, in 9 books, and parts of another styled Xvusvtiza, in 28 books, by Zosimus of Egypt. The latter author has left us a treatise on the making of beer, Пegi Lubon Toews. Such is the trivial list, with which we must close our view of the Greek writers on natural science.

The treatise of Epiphanius was published by Gessner, De omnium fossilium genere. Zürich, 1565. 8. Cf. P. I. §195. 3.—That of Psellus, by Bernard. Leyd. 1745. 8.-The Geoponics of Bassus, best, by J. N. Niclas, Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1781. 4 vols. 8. The Mss. on Alcheiny are in the Libraries of Paris and Vienna.-The last treatise above named is given in C. G. Gruner, Zosimi de Zythorum confectione fragmentum. Solisb. 1814. 8.-Schall, v11. 197 ss.

One discovery or invention of this dark period ought perhaps to be mentioned, that of the celebrated Greek fire (feu Gregeois), the composition of which was so carefully kept a secret above 400 years. The recipe for making it is given in a work ascribed to Marcus the Greek, a Latin version of which, in manuscript, was found in the Royal Library of Paris; and from this the work was printed, the same year, by Laporte du Theil. Par. 1804. 4.-Schall, v11. 211. Cf. Gibbon, Dec. and Fall, &c. ch. lii.-Warton, Hist. Poetry, i. 169.

$269t. We give the following references to works pertaining to Greek medicine and physics, before speaking of the authors separately.

1. H. Stephanus, Medica artis principes post Hippocratem et Galenum. Lat. Par.1567. 2 vols. fol.-Ant. Cocchi, Græcorum Chirurgicorum libri, &c. Flor. 1754. fol.-Fernelius, Medic. antiq. qui de febribus scrips, collectio. Ven. 1594. fol.-Haller, Artis medica principes. (cur. Vicatii) Laus. 1784-87. 11 vols. 8. in Lat. version only. — C. F. Matthæi, Mediocor. xxi. vet. Græc. Mosc. 1808. 4.-C. G. Kühn, Opera med. Græc. quæ extant. Gr. & Lat. Lpz. 1821-33. 26 vols. 8. -C. G. Gruner's Bibliothek der alten Aerzete in Uebersetzungen und Auszügen. Lpz. 1780-82. 2 vols. 8. — Cf. P. I. 23. — For some remarks on the anatomical knowledge of the Greeks, see J. Elmes, Annals of the Fine Arts. vol. v. p. 225. Lond. 1816-20.5 vols. 8.

2. Franz, Scriptores physiognomoniæ veteres. Altenb. 1780. 8. — J. G. Schneider, Eclogæ physica e script. præcipue Græcis. Jen. 1801. 2 vols. 8. containing natural history and physics. -I. L. Ideler, Meteorologia vet. Græe. et Romanorum. Beri. 1832. 8. — A. Libes, Histoire de la Physique. Par. 1810. 4 vols. 8.

$270. Hippocrates, of Cos, a descendant of Esculapius, flourished B. C. about 420. In philosophy he was a disciple of Heraclitus. He practiced the medical art particularly in Thrace and Thessaly, and died at Larissa in the latter country.

1u. With uncommon acuteness of intellect he combined a rich variety of knowledge and experience which was increased by travels, and which gave to his writings a value not limited to ancient times, but enduring even to the present day. Of the numerous works that have been ascribed to him, many are spurious. Of those which are genuine, the Aphorisms, or brief medical principles and maxims, are the most generally known.

2. Besides the Apoiouoi, the following works are by all acknowledged to be genuine, viz. the Endura, Epidemics; Ipoyvwotizu,Prognostics, in 4 books;