H

1. The best edition of Gregory of Nazianzus is that of Billius, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1630. 2 vols. fol. A better edition commenced by the Benedictines; yet only 1st vol. executed, by Clemencet, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1771. fol. A 2d vol. (said to have been executed by Clemencet, and lately discovered) was published in 1838.-- Ullmann, Gregorius von Nazianz. Darmst. 1825. 8. a good biography. Basil, that of J. Garnier, Gr. & Lat. Par. 1721-30. 3 vols. fol. -Chrysostom, Montfaucon, Gr. & Lat. Par.1718-38. 13 vols. fol. reprinted, Ven.1756. Also Par.1834-37. 13 vols. royal 8vo. a beautiful work. De Sacerdotio, by A. E. Meo. Lips. 1834. 8. Neander's Life of Chrysostom (2d ed. Lpz. 1832. 2 vols.), transl. into English. Lond. 1838.-See a very interesting account of these orators in the Essay De l'Eloquence Chretienne dans le quatrieme Siecle, by Villemain in his Nouveaux Melanges &c. Par. 1827. 8.

2. There have been English Translations of some portions of these authors. H. S. Boyd, Select passages from Gregory Nazianzen, St. Basil, and St. Chrysostom. Lond. 1810. 8. H. S. Boyd, Select Poems of Synesius, and Gregory Nazianzen. Lond. 1814. 12. "The Poems of Gregory, though principally the productions of his last years, betray nothing of the decay of either intellect or imagination; they abound with the fire of genius, and the vigor of youth; without the aid of pagan machinery, the imagery is bold, the expressions strong, and the thoughts frequently mounting to the sublime."-W. Barker, St. Basil the Great his Exhortations to his kinsmen to the Studie of the Scriptures. Lond. 1557. 8. "An Homelye of Ba silius Magnus, howe young men oughte to reade Poetes and Oratours. Translated out of the Greke. Anno MDLVII. 8vo. Lond. J. Cawood." (The original Greek of this treatise or discourse (cf. P. I. §83.) was published by J. Potter, with the Lat. version of Grotius. Oxf.1694. 8. republ. by Mai. Frankf. 1714. 4.—A good edition of the text alone is F. G. Sturz. Gera,1791. 8.) J. Evelyn, Chrysostom's Golden Book on the Education of Children. Lond. 1559. 12. H. Hellier, Chrysostom on the Priesthood. Lond. 1728. 8. The same treatise translated also by J. Bunce. Lond.1759. 8. and recently by H. M. Mason (Rector of St. John's church Fayetteville, N.C.) Phil. 1826.

293. For brief but very satisfactory notices of all the principal early Christian authors, or Fathers of the Church, both Greek and Latin, we refer to the notes of Dr. Murdock's Transla tion of Mosheim. For an analysis of their works; Adam Clarke, Succession of Sacred Literature in a chronological arrangement &c. to A. D. 1300. Lond. 1830-32. 2 vols. 8. a convenient work. The following works are ranked among the authorities on this subject. J. G. Walchi Bibliotheca Patristica. Jen. 1770. 8. As edited by J. L. Danz, Jen. 1834. it is one of the best works.-W. Cave, Scriptor. Eccles. Historia Literaria. Oxf. 1740-3. 2 vols. fol. good. LE. Du Pin, Nouv. Bibliotheque des Auteurs Eccles. Par. 1693-1703. 14 vols. 4. - Ant. Gal landas, Biblioth. Gr. and Lat. vet. Patr. Ven. 1778. in fol. "this is the most critical collection of the Greek and Latin Fathers."—L'Abbe Tricalet, Bibliotheque Portative des Peres de l'Eglise, qui l'histoire abregee de leurs vies, l'analyse de leurs principaux ecrits, etc. Par.1758-62. 9 vols. 8. new ed. 1787. 8 vols. 8. — A work more extensive, entitled Bibliotheque Choisie des Peres de PEglise,by Guillon, was commenced Par.1831. to consist of 20 vols. 8. "elegant and well spoken of."— A collection entitled Biblioth. Sacra Patr. Græcorum, containing the Greek text only, was commenced by Richter. Lips. 1826. in 12mo. Many of the Fathers mentioned in the preceding glance, with the works of later writers, are found in De la Bigne, Maxima Biblioth. Vet. Patr. (ed. by Despont) Lugd. 1677. 27 vols. fol. "this is the fullest collection, yet it does not contain the original text of the Greek Fathers, but only a Latin version."— C. Fr. Rössler, Biblioth. der Kirchen-Väter, in Uebersetzungen und Auszügen. Lpz. 1776-85. 5 vols. 8. A new German translation by Catholics is in progress. Sämmtliche Werke der Kirchen-Vater etc. Kempt. 1830-36. vol. 1-x. 8. There is a Collection of the Latin Fathers, by Oberthur, Opera Patrum Latinorum, in 13 vols. 8. ; not, however, complete. His collection of the Greek Fathers is cited above, § 287.

HISTORY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

Introduction.

$294u. Next to the Greeks, the Romans deserve an honorable rank in the literary history of antiquity. But in the first periods of their republic they were too much engrossed by war, and the prevailing taste was too much for conquest and for the extension of their power to allow any considerable leisure or patronage to the arts of peace. Subsequently, however, when security and opulence were enjoyed, and the Romans had by their very conquests been led to a knowledge of the arts and sciences existing in the conquered countries; when, especially, they began to have intercourse with the Greeks, and became acquainted with the productions of Grecian taste and art (P. I. § 119); then they themselves imbibed a love for letters and the sciences, and cultivated their language with greater care; then also they imitated the best writers of Greece with peculiar talents and happy success. Accordingly we find in their literature master-productions of eloquence, poetry, history and philosophy. The most flourishing period of Roman literature and art was in the last ages of the republic and the reigns of the first emperors, especially that of Augustus. Afterwards (P. I. §121, 128), under the withering influence of tyranny, luxury, and moral corruption, there was a gradual and complete decline of letters.

L'Abbe le Moine d'Orgival, Considérations sur l'origine et les progrès des belles lettres chez les Romains et les causes de leur décadence. (2d ed.) Amst. 1750. 8. Transl. into Germ. by J. C. Stockhausen. Hann. 1755. 8.-C. Meiners, Geschichte &c. as cited P. I. § 128.-J. H. Eber hardt, Ueber den Zustand der schönen Wissenschaften bei den Römern; aus dem Schwedischen mit Zusätzen. Altona, 1801. 8. This work, says Dunlop, " contains in its original form only a superficial sketch of the subject; but valuable notes and corrections accompany the German translation."

$295u. From these remarks it is obvious that the study of the Roman language and authors must be attended with many advantages. An acquaintance with both is the more indispensable to the learned of every class, because the Latin language has been so extensively employed as a general medium of written communication in the republic of letters.

To the English and American scholar, the study of this language is highly important on account of the great number of English words derived from it. Cf. § 298. 2.-On the study of the Classics in general, cf. P. I. § 29.

$296u. Respecting the origin and progress of the Latin language, we have already (P. I. §114) mentioned what is most important.-Four ages have been commonly assigned to it; these are also considered as periods of Roman literature, and in reference to their relative character and value are denominated from four metals. But in this assignment, the period of the rise and formation of the language is not included. The golden age continued from the second Punic war to the death of Augustus; the silver, from the death of Augustus to the death of Trajan; the brazen, from the death of Trajan to the destruction of Rome by the Goths (A. D. 410); the iron, from this event, during the whole of the middle ages, to the restoration of letters.-Others divide the history of this language into periods, which are denominated, according to an analogy in human life, the infancy, the youth, the manhood, and the old age of the Roman language and literature.

The last-mentioned is the division made by Funccius, in his History of the Roman Language and Literature. See $299. 8. The same is followed by Harles, Dunlop (cited $ 299. 8.) suggests a division into three periods: the age before Augustus; the age marked by his name; and the age after him, extending to the destruction of Rome. But we shall adopt another division, which is suggested by Scholl (cited § 299. 8.), and appears more simple and exact. Cf. $301.

§ 297. The true pronunciation of the Latin, like that of the Greek (§ 5), cannot be determined with certainty. There is no dispute among scholars respecting the principles which are to guide us in locating the accent; i. e. in deciding on which syllable to place the stress in enunciating any word.

The following rule is adopted. In all words of only two syllables, place the stress always on the first syllable or penultima; in all words of more than two syllables, place the stress on the penultima when the penultima is long in quantity, but on the antepenultima when the penultima is short in quantity. This rule is thought to be supported by the authority of Quintilian. "Namque in omni voce, acuta intra numerum trium syllabarum continetur, sive hæ sint in verbo sole, sive ultimæ ; et in his aut proxima extremæ, aut ab ea tertia. Trium porro, de quibus loquor, media longa aut acuta aut flexa erit; codem loco brevis, utique gravem habebit sonum, ideoque positam ante se, id est ab ultima tertiam, acuet. Est autem in omni voce utique acuta, sed nunquam plus una; nec ultima unquam; ideoque in dissyllabis prior.' Instit. Orat. L. I.

c. 5.

But with reference to the sound of the letters, the vowels especially, there is not such agreement. Many think it proper to adopt what are called the Continental sounds of the vowels, while others choose to follow English analogy. The latter is the custom at most of the seminaries in the U. States, particularly the northern.

It is worthy of remark that the Frenchman, German, and Italian, in pronouncing Latin, each yields to the analogies of his native tongue. Each of them may condemn the other, while each commits the same error, or rather follows in truth the same general rule. Erasmus says he was present at a levee of one of the German princes, where most of the European ambassadors were present; and it was agreed that the conversation should be carried on in Latin. It was 80; but you would have thought, adds he, that all Babel had come together. - Cf. C. Middleton, De Latinarum literarum pronunciatione, in his Miscellaneous Works. Lond. 1755. 5 vols. 8. (vol. 4th).-See Rules for pronouncing Latin, &c. cited § 5. — Andrews & Stoddard, Lat. Grammar, under Orthoepy.

-

§ 298. It is important that the study of this language as well as the Greek should be commenced in early life. In the introduction to the History of Greek Literature, we offered (§6) some remarks on the methods of teaching the languages. We will add here a few particulars.

1. Besides the various exercises before alluded to (§ 6. 4.) that of conversation may be mentioned as a very valuable aid in acquiring familiarity with Latin or any other foreign language. It may in fact be a question, whether the inconvenience of the old regulation, which required the intercourse between pupil and teacher in the higher seminaries to be carried on in Latin, was not more than compensated by the knowledge of the language thereby acquired. Certain it is, that under our present systems of study, languages are learned as it were by the eye rather than the ear; and it often happens, that a scholar would be quite puzzled by a sentence spoken to him, when he could readily translate the same sentence presented to his eye in a written form. The difficulty is, partly at least, that he has associated the meaning of the foreign word with its visible form rather than its sound. Frequent conversation would remove this, besides contributing in other ways to familiarity with the language.-A very useful exercise, preparatory for more regular conversation, is to give orally in Latin (and the same of course may be done in the case of any other language which one wishes to learn) the name of each object that is noticed in a room, a walk, ride, or visit to a place of resort, a store, a shop, or the like. This exercise is particularly calculated to please youthful beginners, and might be practiced by several students in company, either with or without a teacher.

Some aid in exercises of this kind may be derived from Vocabularies, in which the names of things belonging to the same class, or of subjects related to each other, are brought together. The London Vocabulary, for the Latin, and Howard's Vocabulary, for the Greek, are little works of this sort, of considerable merit.

2. Another amusing and useful exercise, in studying the Latin and Greek in particular, is to trace terms in our own language back to the Latin or Greek originals, from which they were derived. It is also specially serviceable, in acquiring the mastery of a language, to examine into the analogies established in it in the formation of derivative words from their primitives, and of compounds from their simple constituents.

Special exercises for these objects may be devised by the teacher, besides directing the student's attention to them in connection with particular words occurring in the daily lessons. — A very good introduction to etymological studies is furnished by the following small works. The Student's Manual, being an etymological and explanatory vocabulary of words derived from the Greek, by R. H. Black, LL. D. Lond. 1834. 18. and the Sequel to the Student's Man

sal, an etymolog, and explan. Dictionary of words derived from the Latin, by the same Author. See also Oswald's Etymological Dictionary of the English language, by J. M. Keagy.

Phil. 1836. 12.

3. Some valuable remarks upon a Course of Latin Studies will be found in the Am. Quart. Rev. vol. vi. p. 303. See also T. F. Heynatz, Versuch eines Schulstudien-plans. (4th Absch. von Erlernung der lat. Sprache.) Lpz. 1794. 8.

4. The following extract contains an account of the system of instruction in the Boston Latin School. It is from a pamphlet, which was kindly furnished to the writer by Mr. C. K Dillaway, the present Principal (1836), and which contains an interesting account of the origin and his tory of that School.

"The scholars are distributed into four separate apartments, under the care of the same number of instructors, viz. a Principal, or head-master, a sub-master and two assistants.When a class has entered, the boys commence the Latin Grammar all together under the eye of the principal; where they continue until he has become in some degree acquainted with their individual characters and capacities. As they receive credit-marks of 5, 4, 3, 1, or 0 at each recitation, and as these are added up at the end of every month and the rank of each boy ascertained, those boys will naturally rise to the upper part of the class who are most industrious, or who learn with the greatest facility. After a time, a division of from twelve to fifteen boys is taken off from the upper end of the class; after a few days more, another division is in like manner taken off; and so on, till the whole class is separated into divisions of equal number; it having been found that from twelve to fifteen is the most convenient number to drill together. In this way boys of like capacities are put together, and the evil of having some unable to learn the lesson which others get in half the time allowed, is in some measure obviated. The class, thus arranged for the year, is distributed among the assistant teachers, a division to each. - When this distribution is made, the boys continue for the year in the apartment in which they are first placed, unless some particular reason should exist for changing them; or when the divisions study Geography or Mathematics with the instructor to whom these branches are committed. This method of studying each branch separately, is adopted throughout the school. The same individuals do not study Latin one part of the day and Greek the other, but each for a week at a time. In this way the aid of excitement from the continuity of a subject is secured, and a much more complete view of the whole obtained, than when studied in detached portions, and the grammar of neither language permitted to go out of mind. For it should be remembered, that if the grammar be the first book put into the learner's hands, it should also be the last to leave them. At convenient times the boys in each apartment undergo a thorough examination in the studies they have been over. If any class, or any individuals, do not pass a satisfactory examination, they are put back, and made to go over the portion of studies in which they are deficient till they do pass a satisfactory examination.

6

Boys commence with Adam's Latin Grammar, in learning which they are required to commit to memory much that they do not understand at the time, as an exercise of memory, and to accustom them to labor. There are some objections to this, it is true, but it has been found extremely difficult to make boys commit thoroughly to memory at a subsequent period, what they have been allowed to pass over in first learning the grammar. It takes from six to eight months for a boy to commit to memory all that is required in Adam's Grammar; but those who do master the grammar completely, seldom find any difficulty afterwards in committing to memory whatever may be required of them.-The learned Vicesimus Knox thinks it may be well to relieve boys a little while studying grammar, 'for,' says he, after they have studied Latin Grammar a year closely, they are apt to become weary. When boys can write Latin prose grammatically, they are required to make nonsense verses, or to put words into verses with regard to their quantity only. When the mechanical structure of different kinds of versification is familiar, they have given them a literal translation, of a few verses at a time, taken from some author with whose style they are not acquainted, which is to be turned into verses of the same kind as those from which it was taken; and then compared with the original. Afterwards portions of English poetry are given to be translated into Latin verse. Original verses are then required, which, with themes in Latin and English, continue through the course. Considerable portions of all the Latin and Greek poets used in school are committed to memory, as they are read; particularly several books of Virgil; all the first book of Horace, and parts of many others; the third and tenth Satires of Juvenal entire; all the poetry in the Greek Reader, and many hundreds of verses in Homer. This is an important exercise to boys; and without it they can never write Latin prose or verse with the same facility as with it. It is in this way that the idioms of any language are gained; and in writing verses the quantity and proper use of most words employed by the best writers are instantaneously determined, by recalling a verse in which it occurs."

$299t. Here is the proper place to name some of the works which may serve as aids in studying the Latin language and literature.

1. Chrestomathies and Reading-Books.-F. Gedike's lateinisches Lesebuch, 18th ed. Berl.1820. 8.-By same, Lat. Chrestomathie. 4th ed. Berl. 1822. 8.-F. Jacobs (and F. W. Döring's) lat. Lesebuch. Jen. 1818. The latter has been published in this country under the title of The Latin Reader edited by George Bancroft, in 2 vols. (Parts I and II.) The first part of it also, under the title of Andrews' Latin Reader, by E. F. Andrews. Bost. 4th ed. 1839. - F. Ellendt, Lateinisches Lesebuch für die untersten KlasBen. 5th ed. Königsb. 1815. 8.-The Liber Primus (stereotyped 1827), Viri Roma (as published for Boston Lat. School, 1833), and Historie Sacre, are also used in teaching beginners.-The Excerpta Latina (Bost.1810. 8.) was designed for students more advanced,—Analecta Latina Ma

jora, containing selections from the best Latin Prose Authors, with English notes, &c. on the plan of DALZEL's Analecta Græca. Lond. 1831. 8.- The authors usually read first after the Chrestomathy are Cornelius Nepos, Cæsar, Virgil, Ovid, Cicero, Sallust, Horace.

2 Grammars. Of the great number of grammatical helps, we mention the following.-G. J. Vossius, Aristarchus s. de arte grammatica. Amst. 1632. 2 vols. 4.-Fr. Sanctius, Minerva s, de causis linguæ lat. Comment. (ed. C.L.Bauer) Lips. 1793-1801. 2 vols. 8. (ed. Eb. Scheidius.) Amst. et Goth. 1809. 8.-A.F.Bernhardi, Vollst. lat. Grammatik. Berl. 1795-97. 2 vols. 8.-1.G. Scheller, Ausfürhliche lat. Sprachlehre. Lpz. 1803. 8. Translated into Eng. by G. Walker. Lond. 1827. 2 vols. 8. Ch. G. Bræder, Prak