the several tribes or communities obeyed petty princes or chiefs of their own choice. Subsequently monarchies properly so called were established in Sicyon, Argos, Attica, Thebes, Arcadia, Thessaly, Corinth, Lacedæmon, Elis, Ætolia, Egialea, or Achaia. But the Greeks were in the most flourishing condition during the time of the two republics of Athens and Sparta. - The Achæan and Etolian league, the kingdom of Epirus, and the political constitution of the Greeks in Asia Minor, are also very valuable portions of the Grecian history. 5. The first inhabitants of Greece, who probably came from Thrace and who were followed next by the Pelasgi (cf. P. I. § 33, 34) and the Hellenes, lived in a very rude state, without any commercial relations or even common laws. They practiced upon each other constant robbery and violence, and were exposed to frequent attacks from the occupants of the neighboring islands. Colonies from Egypt, Phoenicia, and Asia Minor, gave the first impulse to their culture, which was aided by the commencement of navigation. The famous Argonautic expedition was one of the most memorable exploits in the navigation of this early period, occurring about 80 years before the Trojan war. About fifty years before the same, the first formal state constitution was adopted, in Crete, under the direc tion of Minos; not with the perfection, however, which was secured at Athens, through the influence of Cecrops, and after him Theseus. The people of Attica were the first to adopt a more peaceful, quiet, and frugal mode of life; and this example influenced the inhabitants of other regions to renounce their irregular habits and predatory excursions. 6. Hereby was occasioned a more free intercourse between the different people of Greece, and a greater union in regard to objects of common interest, particularly in reference to murders and depre dations. A proof of this was given by the fact of so many states joining to avenge the injury of Menelaus (committed against him by Paris in the seduction of Helen) and carrying on together the war against Troy. This war became a means of the further advancement of Grecian culture, although it was also the occasion of many troubles and revolutions among the states at home, and thus led to the migration of many Greeks to neighboring islands and to Asia. Fi nally they became weary of wars and tumult, began to love peace, law, and social ease, and united in adopting public solemnities and religious rites, and maintaining social and civil order. 7. Hitherto the form of government had been chiefly of a military character; the chieftain who commanded in war was the civil head of his people; but now a more monarchical form was assumed. Soon however the kings abused their power, and by their tyranny forced their subjects to throw off the yoke. Love of liberty then became the ruling passion of the Greeks, and the very name of king was odious. It was this spirit which gave rise to a state of things in which the Greeks sustained an eminence surpassing all other nations. Through the mutual assistance rendered each other in acquiring independence, the jealousies and discords which had previously reigned were in great measure allayed. Amphictyon, third king of Athens, had united several of the states in a sort of confederacy (cf. § 105), and this compact afterwards became much more close and strong. An excess of population in this period of tranquility and prosperity was prevented by sending out various colonies to Italy, Asia, and Africa. $8. Among the free states, Sparta or Lacedæmon enjoyed first the advantages of a rigid and at the same time salutary system of laws, which however in some particulars evinced the imperfect culture of the age. Lycurgus, B. C. about 820, the author of this code, had previously made himself acquainted with the manners and institutions of the Cretans and Egyptians. Without introducing any violent changes, or even abolishing in form the existing twofold regal office, he placed the relations of rulers, magistrates, and people, in a new and improved attitude. His morals and precepts, which were in part very severe, tended, as did his whole political system, to form a brave, constant, and warlike people, and thus cause them to be feared and respected. His design was accomplished, and Sparta acquired in these respects a high preeminence over the other states. See J. K. F. Manso, Sparta, ein Versuch zur Erklärung d. Geschichte und Verfassung dieses Staats. Leipz. 1800-1805. 3 Th. 8.— Cf. references given P. II. § 7. 7(d). $9. Next to Sparta, Athens became distinguished. Being advanced in culture by the legislation of Solon, B. C. about 594, and subsequently acquiring glory and power from the defeat of the Persians at Marathon, she became more and more jealous of the superiority of Sparta. This jealousy led to mutual animosities and finally to the well known Peloponnesian war, which was carried on for eight and twenty years (from 431 to 404 B. C.) between Athens and Sparta, and in which almost all the other states of Greece took part on one side or the other. Sparta finally was triumphant, but her glory did not endure long after this. Athens rose far higher in political and literary character, and became the residence of refined manners, useful knowledge, and cultivated taste in the arts. Wm. Young's Political History of Athens. - Trans. into Germ. Leips. 1777. 8.-Athenian Letters, or the epistolary correspondence of an agent of the king of Persia, residing at Athens during the Peloponnesian war. Lond. 1799. 2 vols. 8.- Trans, into Germ. by F. Jacobs, Leipz. 1800.- Bulwer, Rise and Fall of Athens. Cf. P. II. § 7. 7(d). § 10. The progress and decline of culture in Greece has already been exhibited in the Archæology of Literature (P. I. § 33ss. 61ss.), and here it is only necessary to allude to the causes, which conspired to render Greece so eminent in this respect. Some of the causes were, besides the highly propitious climate of the land, its numerous population, whose very necessities as well as mutual emulation excited and fostered a spirit of activity and invention; its enjoyment of an encouraging and ennobling liberty; its commercial intercourse, and the general prosperity which resulted. These, with other favorable circumstances, raised the Greeks to a nation which is even to the present day one of the most remarkable in history, and whose works in literature and art are still valued as our best models. 11. Hence our diligent attention is properly bestowed on the antiquities of the Greeks, by which we become acquainted with their religious, civil, military, and domestic institutions and customs. The general utility of such knowledge, especially as an aid in the inves tigation of history, language, criticism, mythology, and art, commends the study of antiquities to every one, who engages at all in classical pursuits. It adds to the interest and value of Greek antiquities, that, among all the various objects of knowledge, the language, literature, religion, history, and whole genius of the Greeks, hold so high a place in point of relative importance. Some acquaintance with what is denominated their antiquities is essential to enable us to enter much into these subjects, to comprehend well their spirit and character, or to contemplate the various monuments of their literature and art in a definite and correct view. On the utility of the study of classical antiquities, we would introduce the following remarks, abridged from Rollin (as cited P. III. § 5). —“To a certain extent, this study is indispensable for all who make pretensions to education. Without it, there are a multitude of expressions, allusions, and comparisons which they cannot understand; without it, it is scarcely possible to advance a step even in reading history, without being arrested by difficulties which a tolerable knowledge of antiquity would readily solve. Like all other studies, when carried too far, it threatens with its dangers. There is sometimes connected with it, a sort of learning, abstruse and badly conducted, which is occupied only on questions equally vain and perplexing, which on every subject searches for that which is least known and most difficult to be comprehended. Seneca (de Brev. Vit. c. 14) more than once complains that this vitiated taste, which originated with the Greeks, had passed over to the Romans. Juvenal also (L. iii. Sat. 7) ridicules the corrupt taste of his contemporaries, who required that a preceptor should be able to reply without preparation to a thousand absurd and ridiculous questions. It is to know very little of the worth of time, and grossly to misapply one's talents and exertions, to occupy them in the study of things obscure and difficult and at the same time, as Cicero says (Off. L. i. n. 19), unnecessary and sometimes even vain and frivolous. Good sense will lead the student carefully to shun this danger. He will remember the sentiment of Quintilian (L. i. c. 8), that it is a foolish and pitiable vanity, which prides itself in knowing upon every subject all that inferior writers have said; that such an occupation consumes unprofitably the time and strength which ought to be reserved for better things; and that of all the eminent qualifications of a good teacher, that of knowing how to be ignorant of certain things is by no means the least. After these precautions, we cannot too highly recommend the study of antiquities either to students or teachers. High attainments in this very comprehensive branch of learning ought to be the aim of every youth, who proposes to pursue important studies himself, or to direct those of others. The extent or difficulty of the work should dishearten no one. By devoting every day a fixed portion of time to the reading of ancient authors, intellectual riches will be amassed, little by little, which will afterwards be a source of astonishment even to the possessors themselves. It is only necessary to make the commencement, to employ time profitably, and to note down observations in order and with accuracy. Most of the topics connected with antiquities might be embraced under seven or eight heads: religion; political government; war; navigation; monuments and public edifices; games, combats, shows; arts and sciences; the customs of common life, such as pertain to repasts, dress, &c. Under each of these divisions are included many subdivisions. For example, under the head of religion are comprised the gods, priests, temples, vases, furniture, instruments employed in different religious ceremonies, sacrifices, feasts, vows and oblations, oracles and omens; and so of the other heads." See K. H. Milhauser, Ueber Philologie, Alterthumswissenschaft, und Alterthumsstudium. Für Studirende. Lps. 1837. 8. pp. 88. — Burgess, Essay on the Study of Antiquities. Oxf. 1782. 8. Cf. P. I. §19. 12. The sources of Greek antiquities are in part the classical writers, and especially the historians, more particularly such of them as give details of the whole constitution of Grecian society, the manners, customs, and modes of thinking and feeling. Among the classical writers, the poets also must be considered as sources of information on this subject, especially the epic poets, whose narrations, notwithstanding their fictitious ornaments, have some truth for a basis, and whose representations give much insight into the character and views of the people of the times. But another important source is found in the remaining monuments of art; inscriptions, coins, statues, bas-reliefs, gems, and vessels of various kinds. These, being sensible objects, give us a more distinct and complete conception of many points than could possibly be gained from mere verbal descriptions, and are, moreover, of great value as illustrations of beauty and taste. § 13. Various modern writers have collected from these sources the scattered items of information, and arranged them methodically for the benefit of those who wish to gain a knowledge of antiquities, and apply it in the study of Greek literature. Other writers have investigated particular topics in a more full and extended manner. 1. For an account of works of both kinds, see J. A. Fabrici Bibliographia antiquaria. (Stud. et op. P. Shaffshausen.) Hamb. 1760. 4. cap. ii.-Nitsch's Beschreibung des &c. which is cited below (Th. i. p. 35).-Krebs, Handbuch der philolol. Bücherkunde (Bd. ii. p. 211).—Cf. Sulzer's Allg. Theorie, Alten. Meusel's Bibliotheca Historica, vol. 3d, as cited P. II. § 240, enumerates the writers on Antiquities. 2. The most important collection of particular treatises on Greek Antiquities is Jac. Gronovii Thesaurus Antiquitatum Græcarum. Lug. Bat. 1697-1702. 13 vols. fol. Ven. 1732. An account of the contents is given in the work of Fabricius, just cited.-A mass of valuable matter relating to various branches of Greek Antiquities, with illustrations taken from ancient monuments, is found in Montfaucon's Antiq. Expliq. cited P. III. § 12. 2 (d). An abridgement of this in German, by J.F. Roth, was published Nürnb. 1807. fol. with 150 plates. man, with additions by I. I. Rambach. Halle, 1777-78. 3 vols. Cf. P. I. § 32.-A compendiumi of Grecian antiquities by C. D. Cleveland. Bost. 1831. 12.-Abriss der Griech. und Rom. Alterthümer, von Chr. Fried. Haacke. Stendal 1821. 12 (very brief). 4. The following are not designed for manuals, but contain highly interesting pictures of Grecian antiquity.-J. Jac. Barthelemy, Voyage du jeune Anacharsis en Grece. ed. Stereol. Par. 1820. 7 vols. 12. Engl. transl. by W. Beaumont. Lond. 1806. Cf. P.II. $153. In Germ.with notes by J. E. Biester. Berl. 1792. 7 vols. 8. — J. D. Hartmann's Versuch einer Kulturgeschichte der vornehmsten Völkerschaften Griechenlands. Lemgo 1796 & 1800. 2 Bde. 8. 5. The following works also may be consulted with advantage on different points: Wacksmuth Hellenische Alterthumskunde. 3. Among the best Manuals and Compends on the subject, are the following:-Everh. Feithi Antiquitatum Homericarum Libri iv. (ed. El. Stöber) Argent. 1743. 8.-Jo. Phil. Pfeffer, Libri iv. Antiq. Græcarum. Lpz. 1708. 4. Lamb. Bos, Antiq. Græcarum, præcipue Attica-1836. 8.-Heeren's Politics of Anc. Greece. Tr. rum, Descriptio brevis (with obs. of Leisner and by G. Bancroft. Bost. 1824. C. O. Muller's Zeunius). Lpz. 1787. 8. (Eng. trans. by Stock- History and Antiquities of the Doric Race. dale) Lond. 1772. 8. Sig. Havercamp, Antiq. Tr. by H. Tufnel and G. C. Lewis. Oxf. 1830. Græcarum, præcipue Atticarum, Descriptio bre-2 vols. 8.-We may add here, Wm. Bruce, State vis. Lug. Bat. 1740. 8. — P. F. A. Nitsch, Be- of society in the age of Homer.-Lardner's Cabischreibung des hæuslichen, gottesdienstlichen, net Encyclop. No. XLVII & LXX (On Arts, Mansittlichen, politischen, kriegerischen und wis-ufactures, &c. of Greeks & Romans).-Rougier, senschaftlichen Zustandes d. Griechen, &c. (fortgesetz von Höpfner) Erf. 1791-1800. 3 vols. 8. with a 4th vol. by Kupke. Erf.1806. Cf. Class. Journ. v. 10. Nitsch (same), Entwurf der Griech. Alterthümer. Altenb.1791. 8.-Schaaff's Antiquitäten und Archæologie der Griechen und Römer. Magdeb. 1820. 8.-J. Robinson's Archæologia Græca, or the Antiquities of Greece &c. Lond. 1827. 8.-J. Potter, Archæologia Græca, or the Antiquities of Greece. Oxf. 1699. 2 vols. 8. Same work, ed. G. Dunbar. Edinb. 1820. with additions and corrections by Anthon. N.Yk.1825. 8. with notes, maps, &c. by J. Boyd. Glasg. 1837. 12. valuable. Same work in Ger L'Agriculture Ancienne des Grecs. Par. 1830. 14. The subject of antiquities cannot be treated in so strict accordance with chronological order, as the events of history, because the sources of information are not sufficiently minute. But still in describing the antiquities of a people, one should not lose sight of the influence, which political revolutions, the progress and decline of refinement, and other circumstances, have exerted at successive times upon the constitution, manners, and whole national character and social state. Most writers have been not sufficiently mindful of this, and have also confined themselves chiefly to the most flourishing of the Grecian states, viz. Athens, and so have described Attic, rather than Grecian antiquities. In order to avoid this double fault in the present sketch, the antiquities of the earlier and less cultivated times will be distinguished from those of a later and more enlightened period; and in speaking of the latter, although Athens was then the most important and most eminent, we shall also notice the constitu tion and peculiarities of the other principal states. I. Of the earlier and less cultivated Ages. $15. It has been already suggested (§ 5, 10), that Greece advanced with very rapid step from a state of extreme rudeness in manners and morals to the highest degree of refinement. The history of this progress may be divided into three distinct periods. The first extends from the original state of barbarism to the time of the Trojan war; this was the period of the peopling of Greece: the second extends from the capture of Troy to the time of Solon, the period of the rise and formation of the Grecian constitutions and customs: the third extends from the age of Solon, to the time when the Greeks lost their liberty by subjection to the Macedonians (cf. P. II. § 9), the period of their greatest perfection and glory. Under the present head it is proposed to notice what pertains more particularly to the first and second of the above-mentioned periods; and the subject will be considered in four general branches, viz. religious, civil, military, and domestic affairs. (1) RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS. 16. During the rude and unsettled state of society among the Greeks, their religion had no fixed or steady form; yet a great part of the popular belief originated in these times, which on this account have been called the mythical ages or fabulous period. The formation of this early popular faith was aided by the general ignorance, the predominance of sensual ideas, and the natural tendencies of the mind in an uncultivated state of society (P. III. § 5u). With the progress of social and moral culture, the traditions and fables grew into a sort of system, which was retained as a religion of the people, and augmented and modified by additions from Egyptian and Phoenician mythology. According to common accounts, Greece received new and better religious notions from Thrace, by Orpheus, B. C. about 1250 (cf. P. II. 12, 48). They were, however, chiefly of Egyptian origin. |