XVII, fig. a, b, c, d, and e, are varieties of helmets found in Egyptian remains: f, g, k, and í, are Persian and Syrian helmets; the kings are sometimes represented with crowns of a similar appearance: n, and o, are given as Phrygian: l, m, are Grecian, and may represent also the Roman: p, and q, are Dacian: k is a form quite similar to the latter, said to be used also by the Syrians. In tig. r, and on the Grecian warriors fig. 1. and 7, the thorax is seen, and the girdle: s represents a figure found buried in a sitting posture, near the celebrated Dighton Rock, in Massachusetts, with a concave breast-plate thirteen inches long, supposed to be of cast brass, and a belt of the same material four and a half inches wide having a reed-like appearance; a brazen arrow-head, t, was found with it. In fig. u, and on the warrior fig. 7, we see the greaves; the shield in fig. 1, 3, 7: the spear in the hands of the Grecian warriors in fig. 1, 2; and of the Persian, fig. 3: the bow &c. in fig. 6, which represents an Egyptian archer.

$46. Most of the weapons of the ancient Greeks were made of brass or copper, which seems to have been used earlier than iron (P.L. $10), and was often used after the introduction of iron. For defensive armor iron was afterwards generally preferred. For the cuirass or breast-plate, the greaves and the shield, tin or lead was sometimes used. To adorn the weapons with gold was considered as too extravagant and ostentatious. Yet they endeavored to give their armor the highest degree of brightness, not only for the sake of beauty, but to inspire fear in the enemy. On the shield they had a sort of fieldbadge, or military emblem, usually in bas-relief, the image of some god, or animal, especially the lion. The horses also were ornamented with much care.

Respecting the military apparel little is ascertained. Lycurgus directed the Lacedæmonians to clothe their soldiers in scarlet. - The Greek soldiers usually carried their own provisions, consisting chiefly of salt meat, cheese, olives, onions, &c. For this purpose each one had a vessel made of wicker with a long neck, called yukiov. Robinson, p. 349.

§ 47. In connection with the affairs of war, it is proper to notice the use of ships or vessels, which the Greeks in early times employed partly in piracy, partly in transporting armies, and partly in actual combat. In later times the naval battles of the Greeks were frequent and celebrated. Their first ships were long (axg), and moved by oars. The number of rowers was various, often very considerable. Originally there was but a single rank on each side; afterwards, as the ship was built higher, another rank of rowers was added; vessels of the latter kind were called δίκροτα, those of the former μονόκροτα, also μονήρεις, κέλητες. At a later period they were built with three tiers or ranks, rouges, which continued to be the most common form, although there were vessels with four, five, and six tiers, and sometimes even more.

It was early customary to place upon ships certain images and signs, from which they were named. The ship commonly bore the image or statue of some god, to whose protection it was especially entrusted. In the capture of a vessel, the first object of a victor was to plunder this image, and place it as a trophy in his own ship.

48. The Greeks early practiced in war the forming of regular camps. Their compass and extent were such as not only to include the whole army, but also the ships, which after the landing of the troops were drawn upon the dry land. It was customary to surround the camp with a wall or ramparts with towers and breast-works. Before the wall was a fosse or ditch, guarded with pointed stakes. For the principal officers separate tents were erected, of wooden frames, covered with skins. During the night, sentinels were stationed on

guard, and beacon-fires were kindled. Spies and scouts were sent out from both parties, when hostile camps were placed against each other.

"Tents like those now in use seem to have been a late invention. The ancients, on desultory expeditions, and in marching through a country, slept with no shelter but their cloaks, as our light troops often carry none but a blanket; when they remained long on a spot they hutted. Achilles' tent or hut was built of fir, and thatched with reeds; and it seems to have had several apartments. (Il. xxiv. 488. ix. 659)." Mitford.

49. The order of battle was either to place the war-chariots in front and the infantry in the rear, or to give the latter the front, and support them by the chariots from behind. The whole army was drawn into close array, although arranged in distinct divisions. On the commencement of battle they implored the aid of the gods, and made vows of grateful returns. Then the generals exhorted the soldiers to valor, and proceeded to set an example. The onset was usually accompanied with loud shouting and clamor to inspirit each other and intimidate the foe. The wounded were healed with care, having nursing and medicine; but the slain of the enemy were left unburied, or their corpses even exposed to insult, unless their burial was agreed upon in some express stipulation.

50. The spoils taken in battle consisted partly of arms, which the captor either appropriated to his own use, or dedicated to the gods, and partly in other utensils and precious articles, which, together with their owners, became the property of the victor. By means of a ransom, however, the spoils, as well as the prisoners, could be redeemed. After battle, the remaining booty was often divided among the soldiers by lot; the general, however, always received his portion first and without lot. Those who had distinguished themselves by valor, also received prizes and rewards, by the promises of which the generals often stimulated their troops before the action.

"We find that, so early as Homer's time, the Greeks had improved considerably upon that tumultuary warfare alone known to many barbarous nations, who yet have prided themselves in the practice of war for successive centuries. Several terms used by the poet, together with his description of marches, indicate that orders of battle were in his time regularly formed in ranks and files. Steadiness in the soldier, that foundation of all those powers which distinguish an army from a mob, and which to this day forms the highest praise of the best troops, we find in great perfection in the Iliad. The Grecian phalanges,' says the poet (iv. 427), marched in close order, the leaders directing each his own band. The rest were mute: insomuch that you would say, in so great a multitude there was no voice. Such was the silence with which they respectively watched for the word of command from their officers.'

6

Considering the deficiency of iron, the Grecian troops appear to have been very well armed, both for offence and defence. Their defensive armor consisted of a helmet, a breastplate, and greaves, all of brass; and a shield, commonly of bull's hide, but often strengthened with brass. The breastplate appears to have met the belt, which was a considerable defence to the belly and groin and with an appendant skirt guarded also the thighs. All together covered the fore part of the soldier from the throat to the ancle; and the shield was a superadded protection for every part. The bulk of the Grecian troops were infantry, thus heavily armed, and formed in close order, many ranks deep. Any body, formed in ranks and files, close and deep, without regard to a specific number of either ranks or files, was generally termed a phalanx (Il. iv. 332. vi. 83). But the Locrians, under Oilean Ajax, were all light-armed; bows were their principal weapons, and they never engaged in close fight (ùyzinayo).

Riding on horseback was yet little practiced, though it appears to have been not unknown (Il. xiii. 722). Some centuries, however, passed before it was

generally applied in Greece to military purposes; the mountainous ruggedness of the country prevented any extensive use of cavalry, except among the Thessalians, whose territory was a large plain. [Cf. Sallier, cited §138.] But in the Homeric armies no chief was without his chariot, drawn generally by two, sometimes by three horses; and these chariots of war make a principal figure in Homer's battles. Nestor, forming the army for action, composes the first line of chariots only. In the second he places that part of the infantry in which he has least confidence; and then forms a third line, or reserve, of the most approved troops.

The combat of the chiefs, so repeatedly described by Homer, advancing to engage singly in front of their line of battle, is apt to strike a modern reader with an appearance of absurdity perhaps much beyond the reality. Before the use of fire-arms that practice was not uncommon, when the art of war was at the greatest perfection. Cæsar himself gives (De Bell. Gall. v. 43), with evi, dent satisfaction, a very particular account of à remarkable advanced combat, in which, not generals indeed, but two centurions of his army engaged. The Grecian chiefs of the heroic age, like the knights of the times of chivalry, had armor probably superior to that of the common soldiers; and this, with the additional advantage of superior skill, acquired by assiduous practice amid unbounded leisure, would make this skirmishing much less dangerous than on first consideration it may appear." - Mitford, ch. ii. sect. 3.

"Another practice common in Homer's time is by no means equally defensible, but on the contrary marks great barbarism; that of stopping in the heat of action to strip the slain. Often this paltry passion for possessing the spoil of the enemy superseded all other, even the most important and most deeply interesting objects of battle. The poet himself (Il. v. 48. vi. 67) was not unaware of the danger and inconvenience of the practice, and seems even to have aimed at a reformation of it. We find, indeed, in Homer's warfare, a remarkable mixture of barbarism with regularity. Though the art of forming an army in phalanx was known and commonly practiced, yet the business of a general, in directing its operations, was lost in the passion, or we may call it fashion, of the great men to signalize themselves by acts of personal courage and skill in arms. Achilles and Hector, the first heroes of the Iliad (xviii. 106. 252), excel only in the character of fighting soldiers as generals and directors of the war, they are inferior to many. Indeed, while the fate of the battles depended so much on the skirmishing of the chiefs, we cannot wonder that the prejudice should obtain which set the able arm, in vulgar estimation, above the able head. But the poet obviously means to expose the absurdity and mischievous consequences of that prejudice, where he makes Hector (II. xxii. 99), in a late repentance, acknowledge the superior abilities of Polydamas. Yet Homer's own idea of the duties of an officer, though he possessed very extensive and very accurate knowledge both of the theory and practice of war of his own age, was still very imperfect."—Ib.

$51. At the end of war the conquered party either submitted wholly to the dominion and laws of the conqueror, or a peace was made upon certain conditions. This was effected through legates, fully commissioned for the purpose. In forming a treaty of peace, various ceremonies were observed, partly of a religious character. A victim was slain, of which however no meal was made, but its flesh was cast aside; libations were poured out; the parties joined hands in pledge of good faith, and called upon the gods as witnesses of their covenant, and as avengers of its violation, especially upon Jupiter, whose thunderbolts were an object of terror to the perjured. The restoration of plunder was generally a preliminary requisition; and the conquered party was often compelled to pay a sum of money as a fine or indemnification. Sometimes the whole war was terminated by a single combat, the parties agreeing to abide by its issue.

(4) DOMESTIC Affairs.

$52. Since social life was but gradually introduced in Greece, it is not to be expected, that the earliest ages should exhibit much refinement in what pertains to domestic affairs. During the heroic ages their mode of living was nearly as rude as their morals. Their principal meat was the flesh of cattle, sheep, swine, goats, and deer, which they were accustomed to roast. The flesh of birds and fish was more seldom used. The most common food was milk, fruit, and vegetables. The first and most common drink was water; wine, however, was in frequent use; but, generally, mingled with water. Large drinkingvessels were employed at their repasts. Ordinarily they had two meals a day, at mid-day and evening, and in the earlier times it was the Greek custom to sit at table, not to recline. The number of persons at one table was seldom greater than ten.

It was a proverb, ascribed to Theognis (P. II. §31), that the persons at a social repast should not be less in number than the Graces, nor more than the Muses. The Roman Varro is said to have enjoined this rule, respecting the proper number at a repast (Gell. xiii. 11). Adam

Homer mentions three different sorts of seats: (1) dipoos, which contained two persons, commonly placed for those of mean rank; (2) egóvos, on which they sat upright, having under their feet a footstool termed grus; (3) zhioμòs, on which they sat leaning a little backwards." Robinson. Cf. Hom. Odys. i. 130, 131.

53. Social repasts or banquets were often held, being occasioned by public solemnities, festivals, religious celebrations, marriages, and the like. Sometimes they were made at the common expense of the guests (pavos, cf. Odyss. i. 226); such entertainments, however, were viewed as of inferior rank. The feasts upon victims offered in sacrifice have been mentioned (§ 27).

At table the guests sat according to a definite order. The beginning was made by washing the hands. In early times a separate board was placed for each guest, and his portion of food thus divided to him. Wine was brought by youthful attendants, and the guests often drank to each other, and reciprocally exchanged cups. They endeavored to heighten the joys of the banquet by conversation and wit, and also by songs and instrumental music. Cf. P. I. § 68.

$54. The dress of the early Greeks was longer, and more ample, and more completely covered the body, than that of later times. Next to the body they wore a long robe or frock (Túr), which was kept in place by a girdle, and over this a cloak (air) of thicker materials, to protect against the cold. Instead of the latter they sometimes had a mantle (pagos). The women wore also long cloaks or over-garments, called in, often richly embroidered and ornamented. They likewise covered their heads, while the men seem not to have done it in the earlier ages, except that they wore helmets in war. Shoes or socks were not used constantly, but only in going out. In war the men wore a sort of boot or greaves (44).

55. For the sake of cleanliness and of bodily strength, the early Greeks practiced frequent bathing, and with it united the custom of anointing. In bathing they made much use of the sea-water, on ac