173. 2). Archæologia (as cited P. I. § 243. 3), vol. xxv. p. 1. xxvi. p. 300, 368, with engravings. 7. The phials, or small vessels, which are supposed to have received the tears of relatives shed at funerals, have been found in great number, and of various forms. They are termed lachrymatories (urnæ lachrymales). The tears are said to have been kneaded and compounded with odoriferous balsams. It has also been supposed that the vessels might have contained merely a preparation of fragrant essences, which were figuratively called tears. The lachrymatories found in the ancient tombs are sometimes of terra cotta, sometimes of alabaster (cf. P. I. 195. 5), frequently of glass (cf. § 268. 3). Many of the latter material have been gathered from the catacombs in the island Milo, the ancient Meios one of the Cyclades (cf. P. V. § 146). "Among the decayed bones are found coins, ornaments of gold and precious stones for the ears, lamps, lachrymatory vases, with large quantities of glass, earthern and copper vessels, probably, for oils and perfumes. Many of the earthern cups are of the form we call Etruscan; the larger are painted with a light pencil; often only the outlines are given, but generally with much spirit. The question whether the ancients knew the use of glass was settled by the discoveries in Pompeii; this is the first I have heard of among the Greeks. The vessels are generally flat at the bottom and four inches over; they rise one inch, of this diameter, and then suddenly narrowing to the diameter of an inch and a half, pass thus to the height of seven or eight inches; their shape is much like that of a candlestick. But I have several other forms running through a considerable variety." Jones's Sketch of Naval Life. New Haven, 1829. 2 vols. 12.-Cf. Silliman's Journal, vol. xvi. p 333, for a view of some these vases. — Specimens of the vases from this island are in the Cabinet of Amherst College. Several forms of Jachyrmatories and vasa unguentaria are given in our Plate XV. fig a, and fig. d d. See Mem. de l'Institut, Classe d'Hist, et Lit. Anc. vol. v11. p. 92. sur vases lachrymatoires. $342. A period of mourning was observed in memory of the deceased; its duration in each particular case was fixed by law; in the case of widows it continued for ten months. In the time of the emperors, a general mourning (luctus publicus) was appointed at their decease or that of their sons; a thing previously not practiced, except on occasions of great public calamity.-Immediately after the funeral obsequies, it was also customary to slay the victims (called inferia) offered in sacrifice to the departed, and to connect therewith a solemn funeral repast. lu. When the deceased was of distinguished character, this repast or entertainment was publicly given, and meat was sometimes distributed among the people (visceratio). These funeral sacrifices were annually repeated at the graves or spot of interment. On such occasions, public games (ludi funebres) were appointed, especially gladiatoral sports. 2. Gladiatorial shows probably had their origin, as has been observed (§ 235), in funeral celebrations. And, although they were exhibited on many other occasions, yet the primitive custom of presenting them at the funerals of great men, all along prevailed in the city and Roman provinces; nor was it confined only to persons of quality, but almost every rich man was honored with this solemnity after his death; and this they very commonly provided for in their wills, defining the number of gladiators, as their due by long custom. Suetonius to this purpose tells us of a funeral, in which the common people extorted money by force from the deceased person's heirs, to be expended on this account." (Kennett.) 3. A very vivid picture of the funeral sacrifices and games annually repeated at the graves of the deceased is given by Virgil in the fifth book of the Eneid, where he describes the honors rendered by Æneas to the manes of his father Anchises. He mentions particularly a contest in rowing galleys, a foot-race, a boxing-match, a trial of skill in shooting arrows, and a mock equestrian battle (pugnæ simulacra). Cf. § 187. § 343 u. The greatest funeral solemnity among the Romans was the deification (consecratio) of the emperors, something like the apotheosis of Grecian heroes. It took place in the Campus Martius, where the image of the person to be deified was placed upon a lofty funeral pile. From this pile, whenever it was set on fire, an eagle, previously bound alive upon it, flew aloft in the air; which, according to the ideas of the people, bore the soul to Olympus. The deified person then received the surname or appellation Dirus. This solemnity was accompanied also with religious rites, public games and banquets. The custom did not entirely cease under the first Christian emperors. This ceremony was wholly distinct from the funeral. The true body was burned and the ashes buried in the usual manner and with a splendid show,before these rites were performed with the image of wax. The whole ceremony is well described by Herodian (cf. P. II. § 254). in the fourth book of his History. EPITOME OF CLASSICAL GEOGRAPHY. Introduction. § 1. THE earlier Greeks must have been very ignorant of the neighboring countries, for the scenes of some of the wildest fictions of the Odyssey were within a few hours sail of Greece. The account of the Argonautic expedition furnishes a still stronger proof of this, for these adventurers are described as having departed by the Hellespont and Euxine sea, and as having returned through the straits of Hercules; whence it manifestly appears, that at that time the Greeks believed that there was a connection between the Palus Mæotis (sea of Azof) and the Ocean. §2. In later times, however, the commercial enterprise of the Athenians corrected these errors. Their ships sailed through the seas to the east of Europe and brought home such accurate information, that we find the description of these seas and the neighboring coasts nearly as perfect in ancient as in modern writers. The expedition of Clearchus into Asia, related in the Anabasis of Xenophon (cf. P. II. 243), and still more that of Alexander, gave the Greeks opportunities of becoming acquainted with the distant regions of the east. - The west of Europe was visited and described by the Phoenicians, who had penetrated even to the British Islands. - From these different descriptions several geographical treatises were com. piled, all of which were in a great measure superseded by the work of Ptolemy, styled Syntaxis, or, as the Arabians called it, Almagest (P. II. § 218). This embraced all the astronomical and geographical knowledge of the ancients, and from it we are enabled to trace with some degree of precision the limits of the ancient world. (Cf. P. 11. § 206 ss.) §3. The northern parts of Europe and Asia were known by name; an imperfect sketch of India limits their eastward progress; the dry and parched deserts of Africa prevented their advance to the south; and the Atlantic ocean limited the known world on the west. It must not be supposed that all the countries within these limits were perfectly known; we find, that even within these narrow boundaries, there were several nations, of whom the ancient geographers knew nothing but the name. Let us attempt to trace a line, which would form a boundary including the whole of the earth that was known in the time of Ptolemy. We will begin at Ferro, one of the Insule Fortunate (Canary Islands), which because it was the most westerly land known, was taken by Ptolemy for his fixed meridian. Our line extending hence northerly would include the British Isles, and the Shetland Isles; the latter are probably designated by the Thule of the ancients, according to d'Anville, although some have supposed it was applied to Iceland. From the Shetland Isles the line would pass through Sweden and Norway probably; perhaps around the North cape, as it has been thought that this must be the Rubeas Promontorium of Ptolemy. The line would, in either case, be continued to the White Sea at the mouth of the river Dwina, which seems to be described by Ptolemy under the name Carambucis. Thence it would extend to the Ural Mountains, which were partially known by the name of Hyperborei; near which the poets located a people of the same name (Virg. Georg, i. 240) said to live in all possible felicity. From these mountains the line would pass along through Scythia to the northern part of the Belur Tag Mountains, the ancient Imaus. Crossing these, it enters, the region of Kashgar (in Chinese Tartary), called by Ptolemy Casia Regio; a region of which, however, he evidently knew little. Our line would be continued thence to the place called by the ancients Sera; which is most probably the modern Kan or Kan-tcheou, near the north-west corner of China and the termination of the immense wall separating China and Tartary. From Sera or Kan, it must be carried over a region, probably wholly unknown to the ancients, to a place called Thyne in the country of the Sine; this place was on the Cotiaris, a river uniting with the Senus, which is supposed to be the modern Gamboge. On the coast, which we now approach with our line, the most easterly point (that is particularly mentioned) is thought to be Point Condor, the southern extremity of Cambodia'; this was called Promontorium Satyrorum, and some small Isles adjacent Insule Satyrorum, because monkies were found here, whose appearance resembled the fabled Satyrs. The general ignorance respecting this region is obvious from the fact, that it was imagined, that beyond the Promontory of Satyrs the coast turned first to the south and then completely to the west, and thus proceeded until it joined Africa. From the point or cape just named, the boundary we are tracing would run around the Aurea Chersonesus, or peninsula of Malaya or Malacca, take in the coast of Sumatra, anciently called Jabadii Insula, and pass to Taprobana or Salice, the modern Ceylon. Thence sweeping around the Maldives, called by Ptolemy Insule ante Taprobanam, and crossing the equator it would strike Africa at Cape Delgrado, supposed to correspond to the Prasum Promontorium, being about 10 degrees S. Latitude. The boundary would exclude Madagascar as the ancient Menuthias designates, not Madagascar as has been conjectured, but most probably the modern Zanzibar. It may be impossible to trace the line across Africa; of the interior of which the ancients knew more than one would suppose, judging from the ignorance of the moderns on the subject. The line would pass south of the Mountains of the Moon, Luna Montes, which are mentioned by Ptolemy; and also, in part, of the river Niger, which as d'Anville remarks, was known even in the time of Herodotus. On the Atlantic coast the line would come out a little south of Sierra Leone at Cape St. Anns about 10 degrees N. Latitude; this point answering to the ancient Noti Cornu, Southern Horn, off against which lay the islands called Insule Hesperidum. From this cape our line passes up the shore of the Atlantic to the Insulæ Fortunatæ. From this it is obvious, that the portion of the earth known to the ancients was small in proportion to the whole. It has been said with probable accuracy, that it was scarcely one third of the land, now known, which has been estimated as 42 or 44 millions of square miles; and of the 155 millions of square miles of water, covering the rest of the globe, they knew almost nothing. On the knowledge of the ancients respecting the earth, Class. Journ. v. 103. 1x. 133. - For the principal helps in studying Classical Geography, consult the references given P. II. § 7.7 (b); see also P. ÎI. §§ 206-208, 371 ss. § 4. The division of the earth into the large portions, Europe, Asia, and Africa, is of very ancient date; but although the names have been preserved, the boundaries in several particulars differed. Egypt was formerly reckoned among the Asiatic kingdoms; at present it is esteemed part of Africa: Sarmatia was esteemed part of Europe; a great part of it now forms one of the divisions of Asia. § 5. The division of the earth into zones has remained unaltered; but the ancients believed that the Temperate alone were habitable, supposing that the extreme heat of the Torrid and extreme cold of the Frigid zones were destructive of animal life. — Another division, introduced by Hipparchus, was that of climates. A climate is a space included between two parallels of latitude, so that the longest days of the inhabitants at one extremity exceeds that of the inhabitants of the other by half an hour. Of these, eight were known. The parallels pass successively through Meroe on the Nile, Sienne, Alexandria in Egypt, Carthage, Alexandria in the Troas, the middle of the Euxine sea, Mount Caucasus, and the British Islands. NOTE. In studying this Epitome, it is indispensable to success that some Atlas should be used. That of Butler is very suitable for the purpose. The student need not commit to memory in the usual way. Let him first learn the general divisions and names of the countries or provinces included in the lesson, and next carefully read over the whole lesson, tracing everg thing, as far as possible, on his maps. For recitation, let the Teacher question him on the maps of the Atlas, or on large maps in mere outline, prepared for the purpose, which will be far better. I. OF EUROPE. § 6. EUROPE, though the smallest, is, and has been for many ages, the most important division of the earth. It has attained this rank from the superiority in arts and sciences, as well as in government and religion, that its inhabitants have long possessed over degraded Asia and barbarous Africa.-It derives its name from Europa, the daughter of Agenor, a Phoenician king, who being carried away, according to the mythological tales (P. III. § 23), by Jupiter under the disguise of a bull, gave her name to this quarter of the globe. § 7. The boundaries of ancient and modern Europe were nearly similar, but we learn from Sallust that some geographers reckoned Africa a part of Europe. The northern ocean, called by the ancients the Icy or Saturnian, bounds it on the north; the north-eastern part of Europe joins Asia, but no boundary line is traced by ancient writers; the remainder of its eastern boundaries are the |