the bay of Tarentum; in the middle ages the northern part was named Basilicata, from the emperor Basil; and the southern part was called Calabria-citra by the Greek emperors, to perpetuate the memory of ancient Calabria, which they had lost.

The principal towns; on the Tuscan sea, Pæstum, near Mount Alburnus, celebrated in ancient times for its roses, and in modern for its beautiful ruins (cf. Eustace, cited P. I. § 190. 1, and Winckelmann, Histoire &c. vol. 111. p. 297, as cited P. I. § 324); near it, Velia or Elea, the birth-blace of Zeno, the inventor of logic, founded by a division of the Asiatic colony, who built Marseilles; Buxentum, called by the Greeks Pyxus, on the Lausine bay; and Laus, on a river of the same name, from which the Lausine bay is designated. In the interior, were Atinum, on the Tenagrus; Aternum, on the Silarus; Grumentum, on the Aciris; and Lagaria, said to have been founded by Epeus, the framer of the Trojan horse.-On the shore of the Tarentine bay, were Metapontum, the residence of Pythagoras during the latter part of his life, and the head-quarters of Hannibal for several winters; Heraclea, where the congress of the Italo-Grecian states used to assemble; Sybaris, on a small peninsula, infamous for its luxury; and Thurium, at a little distance, whither the Sybarites retired when their own city was destroyed by the people of Crotona. The plains where these once flourishing cities stood are now desolate; the rivers constantly overflow their banks, and leave behind them muddy pools and unwholesome swamps, while the few architectural remains contribute to the melancholy of the scene by recalling to memory the days of former greatness.

The principal rivers of Lucania were the Tanagrus (Negro,) which, after sinking in the earth, breaks forth near the beautiful valley of Alburnus, and falls into the Tuscan sea; Melpus (Melfa), which empties itself into the Laus Sinus (Gulf of Policastro, so called from the number of ruins on its shores); the Bradanus, a little rivulet, dividing Lucania from Calabria, and falling into the Tarentine bay; the Aciris (Agri), and the Sybaris (Coscile), small streams on the Tarentine coast.

§ 49. The south-west of Italy, below the Sybaris, was named Bruttio-tellus or Bruttium, but is now called Calabria-ultra. · The principal cities of the Bruttii, on the Tuscan sea, were Pandosia, where Alexander, king of Epirus, who waged war in Italy while his relative and namesake was subduing Asia, died; Consentia (Cosenza), the capital of the Bruttii; Terina, on the Sinus Terinæus (Gulph of St Euphemia); and Vibo, or Hippo, called by the Romans Valentia (Monte Leone). On the Sicilian strait, were the town and promontory Scyllæum (Scylla), whose dangerous rocks gave rise to the fable of the sea-monster Scylla (cf. P. III. § 117); opposite to the celebrated whirlpool Charybdis on the coast of Sicily: Rhegium (Reggio), so named by the Greeks, because they believed that, at some very remote period, Sicily was joined to Italy, and broken of here by some violent natural concussion; it was founded by a colony from Calchis, in the island of Eubœa, and the surrounding country was celebrated for its fertility; not far from Rhegium were the village and cape Leucopetra, so named from the whiteness of its rocks, now Capo dell' Arnai.

On the Tarentine bay were Petilia, the city of Philoctetes; Crotona founded by some Achæans on their return from the Trojan war, where Pythagoras established his celebrated school of philosophy; the people were so famous for their skill in athletic exercises, that it was commonly said "the last of the Crotoniates is the first of the Greeks"; south of this was the Promontorium Lacinium, where a very celebrated temple of Juno stood, whence she is frequently called the Lacinian goddess; from the remains of this temple, the promontory is now called Capo della Colonne; Scylacæum (Squillace), founded by an Athenian colony on a bay to which it gives name; Caulon (Costel Vetere), an Achæan colony, almost destroyed in the wars with Pyrrhus; south of it, Neryx (Gerace), near the Promontorium Zephyrium (Burzano), the capital of the Locrians, who at a very early period settled in this part of Italy. The cape at the southern extremity of Italy was named Promontorium Herculis now Spartivento.

The principal rivers of the Bruttii were the Crathes (Crati), and Neathes (Neti), which received its name from the Achæan women having burned their husbands' ships to prevent their proceeding further in search of a settlement.

50. A great proportion of the Greeks who colonized the south of Italy, were generals, who on their return from the Trojan wars, found that they had been forgotten by their subjects, and that their thrones were occupied by others. The intestine wars that almost continually devastated Greece, increased the number of exiles, who at different times, and under various leaders, sought to obtain in a foreign country, that tranquility and liberty that had been denied them at home. These different states were internally regulated by their own laws; but an annual congress similar to the Amphictyonic council of Greece, assembled at Heraclea, and united the several communities in one great confederacy.

Sybaris seems to have been, at first, the leading state, but after a bloody war, it was destroyed by the jealousy of the people of Crotona; the Sybarites did not yield to despair; five times they rebuilt their city, but at length it was leveled to the ground, and its wretched inhabitants, forced to relinquish their native place, built a new town at Thurium. - The Crotoniates did not long preserve their supremacy, for the vices of the Sybarites were introduced into their city, and they consequently fell an easy prey to the Locrians. To secure their superiority, the Locrians entered into an alliance with the kings of Syracuse, who by this means obtained considerable influence in the south of Italy, until the attempt of the elder Dionysius to secure to himself a part of the country by building a wall from the Terinæan gulf to the Ionian sea, and still more the ingratitude of the younger Dionysius, gave them a distaste for the connection. After breaking off their alliance with the Sicilians, the Locrians united themselves to the Romans; during the war with Pyrrhus, they adhered to the fortunes of Rome with the most unshaken fidelity; but afterwards becoming justly alarmed at the restless ambition of their allies, they readily joined Hannibal. It is remarkable, that in all the other Italo-Grecian states the people embraced the Carthaginian side, while the nobles sided with the Romans, but among the Locrians the division of parties was directly the contrary.

The Tarentines ruled the shores of the Tarentine bay, but being enervated by riches and luxury, they were obliged to put themselves under the protection of Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, to secure their city from the Romans. After the disgraceful termination of Pyrrhus's Italian campaign, that monarch returned home, leaving a garrison in Tarentum, under the command of Milo, who betrayed the city to the Romans.

After the termination of the second Punic war, these states, though acknowledging the superiority of Rome, retained their own laws and private jurisdiction, even to the latest periods of the Roman empire.

§ 51. (3) The Topography of ROME. This city was originally, it is stated, nearly in the form of a square, and its whole perimeter was scarcely one mile. In the time of Pliny the walls were said to have been nearly 20 miles in circuit. The wall built by Belisarius to resist the Goths, still remaining, is about 14 miles in circumference. The Gates (Porta) of Rome were originally four; in the time of the elder Pliny, there were thirty-seven; in the reign of Justinian only fourteen. The following were the most noted; Porta Carmentalis, Collina, Tiburtina, Calimontana, Latina, Capena, Flaminia, Os

tiensis.

For a plan of ancient Rome, see our plate XXIX.

§ 52. Thirty-one great Roads centered in Rome. Some of the principal were VIA Sacra, Appia, Emilia, Valeria, Flaminia. These public roads "issuing from the Forum traversed Italy, pervaded the provinces, and were terminated only by the frontiers of the empire." Augustus erected a gilt pillar in the middle of the forum, called Milliarium aureum (Tac. Hist. i. 27), from which distances on the various roads were reckoned. "This curious monument was discovered in 1823." (Butler's Geogr. Class. p. 39.)

"They usually were raised some height above the ground which they traversed, and proceeded in as straight a line as possible, running over hill and valley with a sovereign contempt for all the principles of engineering. They consisted of three distinct layers of materials: the lowest, stones, mixed with cement, statumen; the middle, gravel or small stones, rudera, to prepare a level and unyielding surface to receive the upper and most important structure, which consisted of large masses accurately fitted together. These roads, especially in the neighborhood of cities, had, on both sides, raised foot-ways, margines, protected by curbstones, which defined the extent of the central part, agger, for carriages. The latter was barrelled, that no water might lie upon it."-" The public roads were accurately divided by milestones. They united the subjects of the most distant provinces by an easy intercourse; but their primary object had been to facilitate the march of the legions. The advantage of receiving the earliest intelligence, and of conveying their orders with celerity, induced the emperors to establish, throughout their extensive dominions, the regular institution of posts. Houses were every where erected only at the distance of five or six miles; each of them was constantly provided with forty horses, and by the help of these relays, it was easy to travel a hundred miles in a day along the Roman roads. The use of the posts was allowed to those who claimed it by an imperial mandate; but though originally intended for the public service, it was sometimes indulged to the business or conveniency of private citizens." The most ancient and celebrated of all was the Appian way, called Regina Viarum, the Queen of Roads. It was constructed by the censor, Appius Claudius, in the year of the city 441, and extended from Rome to Capua. Afterwards it was continued to Brundusium, 360 miles. At Sinuessa it threw off a branch called the Domitian way, which ran along the coast to Baiæ, Neapolis, Herculaneum, and Pompeii.

N. Bergier, Hist. des grands chemins des Romains. Par. 1792. 2 vols. 4. — D' Anville, on the extent of ancient Rome and the grand roads leading from it, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. xxx. p. 198.

53. There were eight principal bridges over the Tiber, which flowed through the city from the north; PoNs Milvius; Ælius, still standing; Fabricius; Cestius; Palatinus or Senatorius, some arches of it still remaining; Sublicius or Emilius; Janicularis, still existing; Triumphalis or Vaticanus. Rome was called Septicollis, from having been built on seven mountains or hills. These were MoNs Palatinus, Capitolinus, Esquilinus, Cœlius, Aventinus, Quirinalis, Viminalis.

The foundation or commencement of the city was made, according to the common accounts, on the Mons Palatinus or Palatium. Here Romulus had his residence. Here the emperors usually abode, and hence the term Palatium, palace, applied to designate a royal or princely dwelling. The hill first added was probably the Quirinalis, on which it has been supposed was a Sabine settlement called Quirium; this addition being made when the union was formed between the Romans and Sabines, before the death of Romulus, and the Romans took the name of Quirites. The double Janus on the earliest coins is by some supposed to refer to this union. Next was added the hill Calius, on which a Tuscan settlement is supposed to have been planted. The other four hills were successively added, at least, before the close of the reign of Servius Tullius, sixth king of Rome. Two hills on the north of the Tiber were also connected with the city. The Janiculum was fortified by Ancus Martius, 4th king of Rome, as a sort of out-post and joined to the city by a bridge. The other the Vaticanus, so called perhaps from the predictions uttered there by soothsayers, vates, was added at a later period; it was rather disliked by the ancients, but is now the principal place in Rome, being the seat of the Pope's palace, St. Peter's church, and the celebrated Vatican library. A tenth hill, Collis hortulorum, called also Pincius, was taken into the city by Aurelian.

On the side of the Capitoline hill towards the Tiber was the Tarpeian Rock. Johnson says, (in his Philos. of Travel. cited P. I. § 190), "of all that tremendous precipice, painted in such terriffic colors, by Seneca, immensæ altitudinis aspectus, only thirty feet of its summit now overlook the consolidated dust of ancient temples and the accumulated filth of modern hovels." — The spot was visited in 1829 by two American gentlemen, eminent scholars, one of whom writes, "after very cautious estimates we both judged the original height to have been about 80 feet, of which about 20 may be filled up, leaving about 60 for its present altitude."

§ 54. Rome was originally divided into four districts. From the time of Augustus there were fourteen. The last division is followed by most topographers, and affords the most convenient order for mentioning the objects worthy of notice in the city. The names of the districts were as follows; 1. Porta Capena; 2. Cælimontium; 3. Isis and Serapis or Moneta; 4. Templum Pacis or Via Sacra; 5. Esquilina cum turri et colle Viminali; 6. Alta Semita; 7. Via Lata; 8. Forum Romanum; 9. Circus Flaminius; 10. Palatium; 11. Circus Maximus; 12. Piscina Publica; 13. Aventinus; 14. Trans Tiberim. To describe only the most remarkable objects in each region or district would trespass on our designed limits, and we must be content with merely naming some of them.

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A tabular statement of the objects included in the 14 regions is given in Kennett's Antiqulties, ch. ii. as cited P. IV. § 197. 2. See G. C. Adler's ausfürliche Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Altona 1781. 4. with engravings. The basis, mainly, is the arrangement of Sextus Rufus and Publius Victor with the additions of Nardini and others. (Cf. Grævi Thesaurus, vols. 3. and 4.) Nardini's Italian original was published anew by A. Nibby, Rome 1820. 4. with plates. Descrizione di Roma Antica forma novamente con le Autorita di Bart. Marliani, Onof. Panvinio, &c. with plates. Rom. 1697, 2 vols. 4. C. Fea, Nuova descrizione di Roma antica e moderna. Rom. 1820. 3 vols. 8. with plates. -C. Burton, Monuments and Curiosities of Rome. Transl. into German by Sickler, Weim. 1823. 8.- Venuti, Descrizione topografia delle antichita di Roma, ed. by Visconti, 1803.- Burgess, Topography and Antiquities of Rome. Lond. 1831. 2 vols. 8. - Platner, Bunsen, Gerhard, & Röstell, Beschreibung der Stadt Rom. Tübing. & Stuttg. 1829-37. 3 vols. with a Bilderheft (or Number) of plates. -F. Blume, Iter Italicum. Halle. 1836. 4 vols. 8. On the remaining monuments of ancient Rome, cf P. I. § 186, 188, 191, 226, 243.

§ 55. There were large open places in the city, designed for assemblies of the people, and for martial exercises, and also for games, termed Campi. Of the nineteen, which are mentioned, the Campus Martius, was the largest and most famous. It was near the Tiber; thence called sometimes Tiberinus, but usually Martius, as consecrated to Mars. It was originally the property of Tarquin the Proud, and confiscated after his expulsion. In the later ages it was surrounded by several magnificent structures; and porticos were erected under which the citizens could exercise in rainy weather. It was also adorned with statues and arches. Comitia were held here; and there were Septa or Ovilia (P. IV. § 259), constructed for the purpose.

$56. The main streets of the city were termed via. On each side were connected blocks of houses and buildings; these being separated by intervening streets and by lanes or alleys, would form separate divisions, or a sort of squares; the portions occupied by buildings and thus separated were called Vici; of these there were, it is said, 424. They had particular names; e. g. VICUS albus, jugarius, lanarius,, Tibertinus, Juponis, Minervæ, &c.

§ 57. The name of Fora was given to places where the people assembled for the transaction of business. Although at first business of every sort was probably transacted in the same place, yet with the increase of wealth, it became convenient to make a separation; and the Fora were divided into two sorts, Civilia and Venalia. The Roman Fora were not like the yoga of the Greeks, nearly square, but oblong; the breadth not more than two thirds of the length; the difference between the length and breadth of the chief Forum discovered at Pompeii is greater.

Until the time of Julius Cæsar there was but one Forum of the first mentioned class; that generally called Forum Romanum, or Forum simply, by way of eminence. This gave name to the 8th region (54), and was between the Capitoline and Palatine hills; it was 800 feet wide, built by Romulus, and adorned on all sides, by Tarquinius Priscus, with porticos, shops and other buildings. On the public buildings around the Forum great sums were expended in the architecture and ornaments; so that it presented a very splendid and imposing spectacle; here were the Basilica, Curia, and Tabularia; temples, prisons, and public granaries; here too were placed numerous statues, with other monuments. In the centre of the Forum was the place called the Curtian Lake, where Curtius is said to have plunged into a mysterious gulph or chasm, and to have thus caused it to be closed up. On one side were the elevated seats (or suggestus, a sort of pulpits), from which magistrates and orators addressed the people; usually called the Rostra; because adorned with the beaks of ships, taken in a sea-fight from the inhabitants of Antium. Near by was the part of the Forum called the Comitium, where some of the legislative assemblies were held, particularly the Comitia Curiata. In or near the Comitium was the Puteal Attii; a puteal was a little space surrounded by a wall in the form of a square and roofed over; such a structure was usually erected on a spot which had been struck with lightning. Not far from the PUTEAL Attii was the Prætor's Tribunal, for holding courts. There was in the Forum, near the Fabian arch, another structure marking a place struck with lightning, the PUTEAL Libonis, near which usurers and bankers were accustomed to meet (Hor. Sat. 11. vi. 35). The milliarium in the Forum has already been mentioned (§ 52).

Besides this ancient Forum there were four others built by different emperors, and designed for civil purposes; the Forum Julium, built by Julius Cæsar, with spoils taken in the Gallic war; the Forum Augusti, by Augustus, adorned with the statues of the kings of Latium on one side and the kings of Rome on the other; the Forum Nerve, begun by Domitian and finished by Nerva, having statues of all the emperors; and the Forum Trajani, by Trajan, the most splendid of all.

The Ford Venalia were 14 in number; among them the FORUM Boarium, ox and cow market; adorned with a brazen bull; Piscarium, fish market; Olitorium, vegetable market; Suarium, swine market, &c.

§ 58. In speaking of the temples of Rome, the first place belongs to the Capitolium. The Capitol was one of the oldest, largest, and most grand edifices in the city. It was first founded by Tarquinius Priscus, and afterwards from time to time enlarged and embellished. Its gates were brass and it was adorned with costly gilding; hence the epithets aurea and fulgens applied to it. It was on the Capitoline hill in the highest part of the city, and was sometimes called arx. The ascent from the forum to it was by 100 steps. It was in the form of a square extending about 200 feet on each side. Its front was decorated with three rows of pillars, the other sides with two. Three temples were included in this structure; that of Jupiter Capitolinus in the centre, one sacred to Minerva on the right, and one to Juno on the left. The Capitol also comprehended some minor temples or chapels, and the Casa Romuli, or cottage of Romulus, covered with straw. Near the ascent to the capitol was also the asylum, or place of refuge.

This celebrated structure was destroyed or nearly so, by fire, three times; first, in the Marian war, B. C. 83, but rebuilt by Sylla; secondly in the Vitellian war, A. D. 70, and rebuilt by Vespasian; thirdly, about the time of Vespasian's death, after which it was rebuilt by Domitian with greater magnificence than ever. A few vestiges only now remain.

§ 59. The temple next in rank was the Pantheon, built by Marcus Agrippa, son-in-law of Augustus, and consecrated to Jupiter Ultor, or as its name imports to all the gods (navtov sor). It is circular in form and said to be 150 feet high and of about the same breadth within the walls, which are 18 feet thick. The walls on the inside are either solid marble or incrusted. The

front on the outside was covered with brazen plates gilt and the top with silver plates; but now it is covered with lead. The gate was of brass of extraordinary size and work. It has no windows, but only an opening in the top, of about 25 feet in diameter, to admit the light. The roof is curiously vaulted, void spaces being left here and there for the greater strength. "The vestibule is supported by sixteen Corinthian columns, fourteen feet in circumference, and thirty-nine feet in heighth, each shaft being an entire block of red oriental granite, having bases and capitals of white marble." The Pantheon is one of the most perfect of the ancient edifices remaining at Rome. It is now called the Rotunda, having been consecrated by pope Boniface 4th, A. D. 607, to the Virgin Mary and all the Saints.

Dr. Adam, in his account of the Pantheon, says, "they used to ascend to it by 12 steps, but now they go down as many." On this point the gentleman mentioned in § 53, writes, "the statement that it was originally entered by seven steps is doubtless correct. At present one ascends two steps to enter it. The statement of twelve steps of descent can only have been true four centuries ago, before the place anterior to the Pantheon was cleansed. This took place under Pope Eugene IV., who was elected in 1431."

§ 60. There were many other temples in ancient Rome (cf. P. IV. § 203), which cannot here be described. The temple of Suturn was famous particularly as serving for the public treasury; perhaps thus used because one of the strongest places in the city; although some ascribed it to the tradition, that in the golden age, under Saturn, fraud was unknown. In this temple were also kept the public registers and records, among them the Libri Elephantini, or ivory tables containing lists of the tribes.

The temple of Janus was built or finished, at least, by Numa; a square edifice, with two gates of brass, one on each side; which were to be kept open in time of war and shut in time of peace.

So continually was the city engaged in wars, that the gates of Janus were seldom shut; first, in the reign of Numa; secondly at the close of the first Punic war, B. C. 241; three times in the reign of Augustus; the last time near the epoch of Christ's birth; and three times afterwards, once under Nero, once under Vespasian, and lastly, under Constantius, about A. D. 350. The gates were opened with formal ceremony (Virg. Æn. vii. 707). — Sainte Croix, Sur la clôture der temple, de Janus, in the Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. XLIX. p. 385.

The temple of Apollo on the Palatine hill was celebrated on account of its library (P. I. § 126).-The temple of Vesta yet exists in a small circular church, on the side of the Palatine hill towards the Tiber.-Besides these, we may name the temple of Concord; of the goddess of Peace (Paci æternæ); of Castor and Pollux; of Valor, built by Marcellus.

The Romans were accustomed, like other ancient nations, to consecrate groves and woods to the gods. As many as 230 sacred groves (luci) are enumerated, chiefly within the city of Rome."

§ 61. The Curia were public edifices, or parts of public edifices, and appropriated, some of them for assemblies of the senate and civil councils, others for meetings of the priests and religious orders for the regulation of religious rites. To the former class the Senacula seem to have belonged. The following were among the Curiæ; viz. Curia Romana, Vetus, Hostilia, Vallensis, Pompeii, &c.

The Basilica were buildings of great splendor, devoted to meetings of the senate, and to judicial purposes. Here counsellors received their clients, and here bankers also had rooms for transacting their business. There were fourteen of these buildings; among them, Basilica vetus, Constantiniana, Siciniana, Julia, &c.-Both the Basilica and the Curie were chiefly around the Forum.

It should be remarked that the term Basilica was applied to many of the ancient Christian churches, because they so much resembled the Basilica just described. The earliest churches bearing this name were erected under Constantine. He gave his own palace on the Cœlian hill to construct on its site a church, which is recognized as the most ancient Christian Basilica. Next was that of St. Peter on the Vatican hill, erected, A. D. 324, on the site and with the ruins of the temples of Apollo and Mars; it stood about 12 centuries, and was then pulled down by pope Julius 2d, and on its site has arisen the modern church of the same

name.

§ 62. The Circi were structures appropriated to public spectacles, to races, and to fighting with wild beasts. They were generally oblong, having one end at right angles with the sides, and the other curved, and so forming nearly the the shape of an ox-bow. A wall extended quite round, with ranges of