§ 134. To repel the incursions of the Picts and Scots, who frequently laid waste the Roman settlements, several walls were built across the island. The first was erected by the celebrated Agricola, who completed the conquest of Britain. But this being found insufficient to restrain the incursions of the barbarians, the emperor Adrian erected a rampart of great strength and dimensions. - It extended from Estuarium Itune (Solway Firth), on the western coast, to Segedunum (Cousin's House), a village north of Pons Ælii (New Castle-upon-Tyne), on the eastern coast, a distance of about 70 miles. It consisted of a double rampart and ditch, and was strengthened by forts erected at short intervals. Twenty years after this, the emperor Antoninus rebuilt the wall of Agricola, which was nearly parallel to that of Adrian, and had been neglected after that was built, whence this is usually called the rampart of Antoninus.

§ 135. But the last and greatest of these structures was the wall erected by the emperor Severus, A. D. 200. It was situated a few yards north of the wall of Adrian, and was one of the strongest fortifications of antiquity. The wall was twelve feet wide and eight feet high, built of stone and cement; it was strengthened by eighteen stations or garrisons, thirty-one castles, and three hundred and twenty-four towers: the whole body of forces employed to garrison this immense range of fortification were ten thousand men, besides six hundred mariners, appointed to guard the points where the ramparts communicated with the shore.

§ 136. The islands adjoining Britain were the Orcades (Orkneys), Hebrides (Western Isles), Mona Taciti (Anglesea), Mona Cæsaris (Man), Vectis (Isle of Wight), and Cassiterides (Scilly Isles). Ireland was known to the ancients only by name, and was called lerne Juverna, or Hibernia.

The Irish say that they are descended from a Scythian nation, and that at an early period, part of the country was colonized by the Phoenicians; in proof of the latter, it has been urged that the specimens of the Punic language preserved by Plautus, are almost pure Irish, and that antique swords, found in the bogs of Ireland, have on analysis been proved to consist of materials, precisely similar to those of the Punic swords dug up by Sir W. Hamilton in the field of Cannæ. — Cf. P. II. § 352. 2.

An island called Thule is frequently mentioned in the classical authors as the most distant known, but its situation has not been described, and therefore we cannot be certain what particular island was meant. Iceland, some of the Shetland isles, and Greenland, have been named by different modern writers (cf. § 3).

§ 137. In speaking of the islands in the Mediterranean, we begin in the western part. The Balearice, deriving their name from the skill of the inhabitants in slinging and archery, were on the coast of Spain. Their names were Balearis major (Majorca), Balearis minor (Minorca), and Ebusus (Ivica), Between Spain and Italy are Corsica and Sardinia, separated by the Fretum Fossa (Strait of Bonefacio). Corsica, called by the Greeks Cyrnos, was of little note in ancient times, but is celebrated for having given birth to Napoleon Bonaparte. It contained two Roman colonies, Mariana planted by Marius, and Aleria by Sylla. North of Mariana was Matinorum Oppidum (Bastia), the present capital of the island.-Sardinia derived its name fro Sardus, an African prince, said to be a son of Hercules, who at a very early period led a colony hither; it was called by the Greeks Ichnusa, from its reremblance to the human foot. Neither serpents or wolves were found in this island, and as we are told, only one poisonous herb, which caused those who eat of it to expire in a fit of laughter, and hence the expression, a Sardonic grin. The chief town was Calaris (now Cagliari). Both islands were long tributary to the Carthaginians, who were expelled by the Romans in the first Punic

war,

There were several small islands of no great importance on the coast of Italy; the chief were Ilua (Elba), which is of some interest, as the spot of Napoleon's temporary banishment; Prochyta; and Capreæ (Capri), infamous as the scene of Tiberius's unnatural debaucheries.

§ 138. Sicilia, the largest and most fertile of the Mediterranean islands, lies to the south of Italy, from which it is separated by the Fretum Siculum (Strait of Messina). It was called Triquetra, or Trinacria, from its triangu lar shape, terminating in three promontories; Pelorus (Faro), on the north; Pachynus (Passaro) on the south; and Lilybaum (Boco), on the west.

Syracuse (Siracusa) was the ancient capital of Sicily, and one of the most remarkable cities of antiquity. It was founded by a Corinthian colony led by Archias, and arrived at such a pitch of greatness that the circuit of its walls exceeded twenty miles. — It was divided into five parts, which were so large as to be esteemed separate towns; viz. Ortygia, a small island, on which the Greeks originally settled; Acradina facing the sea; Tycha, between that and the following division; Neapolis, which stood on the great port; and Epipolæ. Syracuse had two ports, the lesser formed by the island Ortygia, and the greater at the mouth of the river Anapus, which here flows into a large bay, having the island at its northern, and the fort of Plemmyrium at its southern extremity. The celebrated prison of Latome was cut out of the rock, by the tyrant Dionysius; in this was a cavern shaped like the human ear, so contrived as to transmit all sounds from below to a small apartment where the tyrant used to conceal himself, in order to overhear the conversation of his victims; it is now a very handsome subterraneous garden. - This city is remarkable for the defeat of the Athenians, in their fatal Sicilian expedition, and the formidable resistance made by the inhabitants when the town was besieged by Marcellus. This siege was protracted principally by the mechanical contrivances of Archimedes.

§ 139. Some of the other considerable towns in Sicilia were Messana; Leontium; Agrigentum, where the tyrant Phalaris resided; Lilybæum, Drepanum, Panormos (Palermo), Himera; Naulochus, where the oxen of the sun were supposed to be kept; Tricola, where Trypho and Athenis established the head quarters of a republic of slaves, and held out against the Roman power for several years.

The principal Sicilian rivers are the Simathus (Giaretta), celebrated for the production of amber; Asinarius, where the Athenian generals Nicias and Demosthenes were taken prisoners by the Syracusans, and Helorus on the eastern coast; on the south side were Camicus and Crimisus, with some smaller streams; and on the north, the river Himera. Mount Etna, so celebrated for its volcano, occupies a great part of Sicily; the poets feigned that the giants, when defeated by Jupiter, were buried under this heap, and that the eruptions were caused by their efforts to relieve themselves. -The first inhabitants of Sicily were the Cyclopes and Læstrigons, a barbarous race of people, almost extirpated by the different Greek colonies, whom the commercial advantages of Sicily's situation induced to settle in this island.

§ 140. Near Lilybæum are three small islands called Egutes, opposite one of which, gusa, Lutatius Catulus defeated the Carthaginians in a great naval engagement, and thus put an end to the first Punic war. North of Sicily were the Insula Eolia (Lipari islands), sacred to Vulcan; the largest is Lipara, which was once a place of great consequence; the next in size is Strongyle (Stromboli), where Eolus is said to have imprisoned the winds, and where there is a celebrated volcano.

Southeast of Sicily is Melite (Malta), remarkable in ancient times for its cotton manufactories. Here St. Paul was shipwrecked in his voyage from Jerusalem to Rome. - Malta was first peopled by the Phoenicians, who found this island a convenient station for commerce, on account of its excellent harbor. Near Malta is the small island Gaulos (Gozo).

§ 141. We notice next the Ionian Islands, on the western coast of Greece. CORCYRA (Corfu) stood opposite that division of Epirus called Thesprotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, named Corcyrean. It is called by Homer Scheria, or Phaacia, and he describes (in the Odyssey) the inhabitants as luxurious and indolent. - The principal town was Corcyra, near which were the celebrated gardens of Alcinous and Cassiope. Near the promontory Phalacrum was a remarkable rock, said to have been the ship which Ulysses received from Alcinous, to convey him to his native country, and which Neptune changed into a rock, as a punishment to the Phæacians for aiding Ulysses.

Leucadia (Santa Maura) was originally a peninsula, and the isthmus was cut through by the Carthaginians to facilitate navigation. The chief town was Leucas, in earlier ages called Nericum, and the neighboring country Neritis; it was founded by a Corinthian colony, and was joined to the continent

by a bridge, as the strait was here very narrow. - At the south-western extremity of Leucadia was a high mountain, named Leucate, and a remarkable rock, called from its color Leucopetra, from which unfortunate lovers precipitated themselves into the sea. On the top of this rock was a temple of Apollo, where the victims offered sacrifices previously to taking the fatal leap. The Echinades (Curzolari) were a small cluster of islands at the mouth of the river Achelous, of which the most celebrated was Dulichium, part of the empire of Ulysses. Near Dulichium was Ithaca (Thaki), the birth-place of Ulysses; the capital was also called Ithaca, and stood at the foot of Mount Neritus.

§ 142. Cephalenia (Cephalonia) is the largest of the Ionian islands.Its chief town was Same, from whence the island was frequently called by that name; there were three other towns of little consequence in the island; from which circumstance it is called Tetrapolis. In this island are some ruins of Cyclopean structure.

South of this was Zacynthus (Zante), with a capital of the same name, celebrated for its fertility and beautiful groves. Herodotus declares that there was such an abundance of bitumen found here, that even the neighboring sea assumed prismatic hues, from the oily matter that floated on its surface.

West of the Peloponnesus were the Strophades (Strivoli), at first called Plota, the residence of the Harpies; and south of them, the island of Sphacteria (Sphagia), taken by Cleon the Athenian, in the first Peloponnesian South of the Peloponnesus was Cythera, or Porphyra (Cerigo), sacred to Venus. It contained two excellent towns and harbors, Cythera and Scanda, which the Lacedæmonians fortified with great care; but the Athenians destroyed both in the first Peloponnesian war.

war.

§ 143. We may include among the Egean Islands all that remain to be noticed.

The Thracian islands occupy the northern part of the Ægean, and were named Thasus, Samothrace, and Imbrus. Thasus (Tasse), opposite the mouth of the Nessus, was in the earlier ages of Grecian history named Ethria. It produced wine and marble, and the inhabitants were at one time so powerful as to dispute the mastery of the sea with the Athenians, but after a severe contest of two years they were compelled to surrender at discretion.Samothrace (Samandrachi) derived its name from Samos, by a colony from which it was first peopled. From this place Dardanus brought the worship of Cybele to Troy. Imbrus (Embro) lies to the south of Samothrace.

§ 144. Tenedos stands at the entrance of the Hellespont, opposite the Troad. It contained but one city, and a celebrated temple of Apollo, here called Smintheus, because he delivered the inhabitants from a plague of mice, called Sminthæ in the Phrygian language.

South-west of this was Lemnos (Stalimene), dedicated to Vulcan, who, when thrown out of heaven by Jupiter, is said to have fallen on this island. It contained two cities, Hephæstia or Vulcatia, and Murina. Farther west, on the Macedonian coast, was Halonnesus (Droma), which is said to have been at one time defended by the valor of the women alone, when all the males were slain. South of these were Sciathus (Sciatia); Scopelos (Scopela); and Scyros (Skiro), where Achilles was concealed by his mother Thetis, to prevent his going to the Trojan war.

South of Tenedos, and opposite Ephesus, was Lesbos (Metelin), the birthplace of the philosopher Pittacus, the poets Arion and Alcæus, and the poetess Sappho; its chief towns were Methymna, celebrated for wine, and Mitylene, from whence the island has derived its modern name. South of this was Chios (Scio), celebrated for its wine. The slaughter of the inhabitants of this island lately by the Turks excited great public sympathy.

§ 145. The largest island of the Ægean was Eubœ a (Negropont), opposite the coast of Boeotia, from which it was separated by a narrow strait, called the Euripus. Into this strait Aristotle (P. II. 115), according to the accounts of some, threw himself, in a fit of frenzy, because he was unable to explain the cause of its ebbing and flowing. The chief towns were Chalcis, joined to Aulis in Boeotia, by a bridge across the Euripus; Eretria, an Athenian colony, founded before the Trojan war; Oreus, on the Euripus; the town and prom

ontory of Artemisium, in the northern part of the island, where the Greeks gained their first naval victory over the Persians; and Carystus in the south, between the promontories Geræstus and Caphareus, remarkable for the quarries of marble in the neighboring mountain Ocha. The history of Euboea is not very important, as the greater part was subjected to other Greek states. In the Saronic gulf were Egina (Engia), anciently Enone, strongly fortified by nature, and at one period the rival of Athens at sea. (On the mar bles discovered here, see P. 1. § 190). The Eginetans were the most distinguished of the Grecian allies at the battle of Salamis, and obtained the prize of valor.. Next to this is Salamis (Elimi), the island of Telemon, father of Ajax and Teucer. Near Salamis the Greek fleet, commanded by Euribiades the Spartan, and Themistocles the Athenian, totally defeated the immense navy of Persia. On the coast of the Peloponnesus was Calauria (Foro), where Demosthenes poisoned himself that he might not fall into the hands of Antipater, the successor of Alexander the Great.

§ 146. South-east of Euboea was the large cluster of islands called the Cyclades, from their nearly forming a circle round the island of Delos. This island, also called Ortygia, is celebrated by the poets as the birth-place of Apollo and Diana. Near Mount Cynthius stood the celebrated temple of the Delian god, to which pilgrimages were made from all parts of Greece. A sacred galley, called Paralus (upalos), was annually sent from Athens to Delos with a solemn sacrifice, and during its absence it was unlawful to punish any criminal in Athens capitally. The other remarkable islands in this group were Myconus, Gyarus, and Seriphus, small islands whither the Roman emperors used to banish criminals; Andros and Tenos, south-east of Eubœa; Ceos (Zea), and Helena, on the coast of Attica; Cythus, Siphnus, and Melos (Milo), south of Geos; Paros, celebrated for its white marble, the birth-place of the statuaries, Phidias and Praxiteles; Naxos, sacred to Bacchus, where Ariadne was ungratefully deserted by Theseus; los, where Homer was said to have been buried; Thera, and Anaphe.

§ 147. The islands in the eastern part of the Ægean were called the Sporades, and more properly belonged to Asia, but they are enumerated here as they were possessed by the Greeks. The chief of these were Samos, sa cred to Juno, the birth-place of Pythagoras; Icaria, which gave name.o the Icarian sea; Patmos (Palmossa), where Saint John wrote the Revelations; Cos, the native country of Harpocrates; Carpathus (Scarpanto), which gave name to the Carpathian sea; and Rhodus (Rhodes). This latter island contained three cities, Lindus, Camyrus, and Rhodus; at the harbor of Rhodus stood the Colossus, an enormous statue, dedicated to the sun (P. III. § 72). It held in one hand a light-house. This splendid statue was thrown down by an earthquake, and having long laid prostrate was broken up by the Saracens when they became masters of the island, in the seventh century.

§ 148. Creta (Crete or Candia), at the entrance of the Egean, was the most celebrated island of ancient times; it is said to have contained a hundred cities, the principal of which were Gnossus, near Mount Ida, on the north side of the island; Gortina, on the opposite side where stood the celebrated Labyrinth, built by Dædalus; and Cydonia, by some esteemed the capital.

The first inhabitants of Crete were the Idæi Dactyli, who lived near mount Ida, and exercised mechanical arts; nearly contemporary with these were the Curetes, who directed their attention to agriculture. Minos, a descendant Jupiter, was the legislator of Crete, and from his laws the institutions of Lycurgus are said to have been principally borrowed. The fabulous legends respecting this monarch, his wife Pasipha, and his daughter Ariadne, are sufficiently known. — Cf. P. III. § 117. (a).

II. OF ASIA.

§ 149. ASIA, the largest and most populous of the divisions of the globe, is celebrated as the birth-place of the human race; the quarter where the true

God was worshiped when the rest of the world was sunk in superstitious barbarism; the scene of our Savior's life and sufferings; and for the great monarchies, the Assyrian, Babylonian, and Persian (§ 211), which possessed extensive sway before the commencement of authentic European history. From Asia, the first principles of the arts and sciences were imported into Europe, and there civilization had attained a high degree of perfection, before the western countries had emerged from barbarism.

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$150. The countries of Asia may naturally be considered in two divisions, the Eastern and Western; the boundary between them being the River Rha or Wolga, the Mare Caspium, and the mountains extending thence towards the Sinus Persicus.

The Eastern division includes SCYTHIA, SINARUM REGIO, INDIA, Persia, MEDIA and PARTHIA, with the countries north of the mountains called Paropamisus. The Western includes SARMATIA with the countries between the Mare Caspium and Pontus Euxinus, ARMENIA, ASIA MINOR, SYRIA, ARABIA, and MESOPOTAMIA With the countries in the valley of the Tigris.

(a) The Countries of the Eastern Division of Asia.

$151. SCYTHIA was the name applied to all the northern and north-eastern part of Asia. Very little was known respecting it. It was divided into Scythia intra Imaum, and Scythia extra Imaum, separated by the mountains called Imaus, now Belur Tag, which unite with the modern Altai on the north, and Himmaleh on the south. Scythia extra Imaum included the Regio Casia (Kashgar in Tartary), and the Regio Serica (the north-west part of China); in the latter was the city Sera, the thoroughfare of ancient commerce between eastern and western Asia.

There has been much discussion respecting the real situation of the ancient Serica.- Cf. D'Anville, & Gosselin, sur la Serique des Anciens, in the Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. xxxii. p. 573. & XLIX. p. 713. — Class. Journal, vol. vi. p. 204. vii. 32. — Anthon's Lempriere article Seres. The SINE occupied the most eastern portion of Asia known to the ancients; supposed to be the country now named Cochin China. Their capital was Thyna, on the Cotiaris, a branch of the Senus.

$152. INDIA included the territory extending from the mountains called in their northern part Parueti, on the west of the river Indus, to the river Serus or Menan, which empties into Magnus Sinus (Gulf of Siam). It was divided by the ancients into India intra Gangem, and India extra Gangem: the boundary between them being the Ganges, which discharged into the Sinus Gangeticus (Bay of Bengal). This country was but little known before the expedition of Alexander. The southern part of India intra Gangem, or Hindostan, was called Promontorium Comaria (cape Comorin). Several places on the coast were known. North of the river Chaberis (Cavery), was the Regio Arcati, the modern Arcot. In India extra Gangem was the Aurea Chersonesus (the peninsula of Malaya), its southern point being called Magnum Promontorium (now cape Romania).

§ 153. PERSIA, in its more limited meaning, was the country lying east of the river Tigris between Media on the north and the Persian gulf on the south. But the name is sometimes, and is here, employed to comprehend the whole territory south of the Paropamisus chain of mountains, from the Zagros Montes and the Tigris on the west to the Parueti and Arbiti Montes separating it from India on the east. Thus it includes several provinces.

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Susiana was the most western on the Tigris, containing the cities Ely mais and Susa; the latter, called in the Bible Shushan, was the winter residence of the Persian kings; it was situated upon the river Choaspes, which flowed from the Orontes mountains into the Tigris. Persis was directly east of Susiana, bordering upon the Sinus Persicus, and corresponding to Persia in its limited and proper sense. Its capital was Persepolis, represented as a city of great splendor; the royal palace was set on fire by the order of Alexander, when inflamed with wine and instigated by his mistress Thais. Southeast from this was Pasargada, where Cyrus is said to have built a tomb for himself.

A monument still exists, which has been called the tomb of Cyrus; cf. P. IV. § 187. 4. — The ruins of Persepolis still excite admiration. It was situated on a beautiful plain 6 miles