a great discrepancy between the various systems of chronology which have been advocated in different nations and at different times. Among the oriental nations there was a strong desire for the honor of the earliest antiquity, and hence each carried back its chronological dates into the regions of mere fable or absolute falsehood, and the Egyptians, Babylonians, Hindoos, and Chinese, present a list of events happening hundreds or thousands of years before the creation. Such systems need not be particularly noticed here. (Cf. P. I. § 21.) § 205. There are two systems, one derived from the Hebrew Scriptures and the other from the Septuagint Version, which are highly deserving of the student's attention. They differ from each other considerably; that drawn from the Septuagint assigns to many events a date much more ancient than that which follows the Hebrew; e. g. the former places the flood some hundred years further from the Christian era, and the Creation at least 600 years further from the Flood, than the latter. There has been much discussion among the learned, concerning the respective claims of these two systems. We only remark here, that the Hebrew chronology is generally adopted. The system of Archbishop Usher is the basis of the principal systems for chronological tables and charts which are commonly used. The system of Usher is in general accordance with the evidence drawn from the Hebrew Bible, the Arundelian Marbles, and the Chronicon of Eusebius. The system of Sir Isaac Newton has already been mentioned, and some of the methods employed by him for fixing dates. This system assigns many important events, particularly of Grecian history, to periods considerably later than other systems. His chronology was at first received with some favor, but is not usually regarded, although Mitford adopts it. See Mitford's Hist. Greece, ch. iií. Append. — Cf. Shuckford's Prof. and Sac. Hist. Conn. bk. vi. Pref. We have already given the titles of some of the most important helps on the subject of Chronology. Cf. P. II. § 7. 7(c) ; § 299. 6. For others we refer to Horne's Intro. to Crit. Study of Holy Script. vol. 11. p. 730.-A labored defence of the Septuagint Chronology is made by Rev. J. J. Jackson, in his Chronological Antiquities. See also Fred. Nolan, on the antiquity and connection of the early cycles and their utility in settling the differences of chronologists, in Trans. of Royal Soc. of Literature, vol. 111. Lond. 1837. - Lond. Quart. Rev. vol. v. p. 4. — A. B. Chapin, Agreement of the true Biblical, Egyptian, and Chaldean Chronologies. N. Haven. 1839. pp. 16. Cf. Christ. Spect., June 1837, and Dec. 1838. § 206. Tables and charts are among the greatest facilities in the study of history and chronology. They bring before the eye, at a glance, what can be presented but gradually and slowly by description; the locality of events and dates on the paper also helps to fix them more firmly in the memory. Every student ought to avail himself of the aid of a historical and chronological chart, either by purchase or (which is better) by actually forming one himself. 207. A great variety of plans for charts have been adopted, possessing greater or less degrees of utility. (a) One of the most simple and obvious plans is to form two perpendicular columns; one for events of every kind ranged promiscuously in order of occurrence; the other for their corresponding dates. Sometimes a third column is added to this plan, for Biography. (b) Another plan, of similar nature, but improved, is to form several perpendicular columns; one for dates, and each of the others for a class of events; e. g. sovereigns in one, remarkable events in another, battles in another, &c. Such is the plan of Worcester's Charts. Both the plans mentioned may be marked for centuries by horizontal lines. -(c) A third plan is the contrivance of a sort of tree, whose branches represent nations; and events are ranged in them according to their dates, the earliest at the bottom. Such is the plan of Eddy's Chronology delineated. Conquests by a nation may, in devices of this kind, be exhibited by one branch receiving others into itself, and the origin of new states by branches shooting out from others. (d) A fourth plan is marked by the peculiarity of being divided into periods, limited on each side by prominent events. Such is Goodrich's Chart. -(e) A fifth plan, worthy of of notice, is that devised by Emma Willard, called "Perspective sketch of the course of Empire." It is essentially the Chronological Tree inverted; the earliest events being placed at the top of the chart, and diverging lines being substituted instead of the trunk and branches. Light and shade are employed to indicate the comparative rank and culture of different nations. (Willard's Atlas. Hartford, 1836.) But it is worthy of remark, that in all these plans there are two grand faults; 1. equal length of time is not represented by equal spaces on the chart; 2. duration is represented by perpendicular lines, while the horizontal line is altogether the most natural and most satisfactory representation. (f) A sixth plan adopts these two important improvements, with the division into periods, and the several columns for different classes of events, allowing where the scale is large enough, each event to be located in its exact place in the line of time. The chief objection to this method is the difficulty of using a scale sufficiently large to include all the important events of some periods without increasing too much the size of the chart and rendering it inconvenient for portable use.(g) A seventh plan unites geography with the history and chronology. This method is exhibited in Priestley's "Specimen of a New Chart of History," given in his Lectures on History.-(h) The device of a combination of streams or rivers is employed in a recent chart by I. I. Hitchcock, called History made visible, Phil. 1839, 54 inches by 27. 208. (D) Actual Dates of the most prominent events. Nothing occasions more perplexity and discouragement to the student in classical history, than the difficulty of remembering actual dates. Many have found this so great as to give over in despair. But, as has been repeatedly remarked, accurate chronology is essential to the utility, and it is no less so to the pleasure, of reading history. And the difficulty complained of is by no means insuperable. Various expedients to aid the memory have been invented ($210); but on the whole, the writer knows of none better than to take a glance over the whole field of past time, select a few grand events which stand out as landmarks, associate these events with their dates, and commit them to memory with perfect exactness, making them as familiar as the letters of the alphabet, Any person of common capacity can do this; and the student who wishes to lay any foundation at all for historical knowledge must do at least as much as this. This being done, he will find it comparatively easy to locate the va rious events, which he may read about or learn from time to time, in their proper place between these grand events whose dates are thus fixed in the memory. § 209. With these views the following outline, in which it seemed desirable to include modern chronology, is offered to the student, to be perfectly committed to memory. The learner is advised to draw it off on a roll of paper prepared for the purpose; using a horizontal line to represent the flowing or progress of time. Let this line be divided into equal spaces, each representing an equal length of time; let the dates of the events be distinctly written exactly at the points in the line where they belong according to this equal division; and let the events also be written directly above or under the dates. BRIEF OUTLINE. Chronology is Ancient or Modern. the whole time before Christ, comprehending 4004 years. the whole time since Christ. Ancient includes I. Ancient Chronology is divided into two portions by the Flood; Antediluvian ages, the portion before the flood, and Postdiluvian ages, the portion after the flood. The Antediluvian ages may be considered as containing only one period; the Postdiluvian ages as containing eight periods. The grand events and periods are the following. Of the Antediluvian ages, The one period is from Of the Postdiluvian ages, the 1st period, is from Deluge 2d period, from Calling of Abraham to ESCAPE of ISRAELITES B. C. 1492; 490; 336 146; II. Modern Chronology is divided into three distinct portions by the ' Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople; Early Ages, the portion before the Fall of Rome; Middle Ages, the portion between the Fall of Rome and the Fall of Constantinople; Recent Ages, the portion since the Fall of Constantinople. The early ages may be considered as containing two periods the middle ages, five periods; and the recent ages five periods. The grand events and periods are the following. Of the Early ages, the 1st period is from CHRIST to the 2d period, from Reign of Constan. to FALL of ROME Of the Middle ages, the 1st period is from Fall of Rome REIGN of CONSTANTINE A. D. 306; A.D. 622 to FLIGHT of MAHOMET A.D.1066; 2d period, from Flight of Mahomet to CROWNING of CHARLEMAGNEA.D. 8003 3d period, from Crown. of Charlem. to LANDING of WILLIAM 4th period, from Landing of William to OVERTHROW of SARACENS A.D.1258; 5th period, from Overthr, of Sarac. to FALL of Constantinople A.D. 1453, Of the Recent ages, the 1st period is from Fall of Constantinople to ABDICATION of CHARLES FIFTH 2d period, A. D. 1556; from Abdic. of Charles 5th to RESTORATION of CHARLES SECOND A. D. 1660; 3d period, from Restor. of Charles 2d to INDEPENDENCE of UNITED STATES A. D. 1776; 4th period, from Independ. of U. States to DOWNFALL of BONAPARTE 5th period, from Downfall of Bonaparte to the PRESENT TIME. A. D. 1815; 210. But it is perhaps due to the scholar to mention here some of the expedients, above alluded to (208), which have been devised to assist in the recollection of dates. We will briefly notice three different systems of artificial memory. 1. The first is that of Dr. Grey, whose Memoria Technica has generally met with the most favorable reception. "As this method" says Priestley, "is so easily learned and may be of such use in recollecting dates, I think all persons of a liberal education inexcusable, who will not take the small degree of pains that is necessary to make themselves masters of it." The expedient is to substitute letters for figures, and form of these letters a syllable or word, and associate it with the name of the persons, the date of whose birth, reign, death or the like you wish to remember,or with a prominent term or word connected with an event to be remembered. The following is Dr. Grey's substitution alphabet, in which each of the ten numerical characters has its consonant and its vowel or diphthong; 1, ab; 2, ed; 3, ti; 4, f, o; 5, lu; 6, sau; 7, poi 8, k ei; 9, n ou; 0, zy. To remember the date of the founding of Rome by this system, substitute for 752 such letters as will, according to the above alphabet, represent 752; e. g. pd, and join the syllable thus formed to the word Rome or a part of the word, thus Rom-pud. The very oddness and uncouthness of this combination will sometimes impress it on the memory. To remember the date of the Deluge 2348, we may form the word Del-etok; of the battle of Marathon 490, Marath-ony, or Mara-fouz. Where a series of dates of successive events are to be fixed in memory, this system recommends the uniting of the barbarous words thus formed in Hexameter verses; which, however, the student must understand, are to be committed to memory; these are called memorial lines.-See R. Grey's Memoria Technica, or Method of artificial Memory. (With Lowe's Mnemonics) Lond. 1812. 8. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. ix. 125. 2. The second method is a system of topical memory, including also the substitution of letters for figures. The principle of the topical method is to conceive a certain number of places in a room, or in some limited space marked by sensible objects; and conceive these places as arranged in a certain fixed order; and then whatever successive events or objects one wishes to remember, throw, in imagination, some pictures of or concerning them, in their proper order, into these conceived places. Such is the principle of Fein aigle's Art of Memory. By this a four-sided room is divided into fifty ideal squares; those who wish a more capacious memory may take also a second story having 50 squares more, numbered up to a hundred; and one may go on so ascending through as many stories as he chooses. Nine squares are to be placed on the floor of the room, and nine on each of the four walls, thus making forty-five; the other five on the ceiling above: the squares on the floor number from 1 to 9; the square numbered 10 is put on the ceiling over the wall supposed to be on your left hand, and the next nine squares from 11 to 19 are on the left hand wall under it; the square 20 is on the ceiling over the wall opposite in front of you, and the next nine from 21 to 20 on that wall under it; the square 30, and the next nine from 31 to 39 are put in like manner on the right hand; and the square 40, and the next nine from 41 to 49 behind you; the remaining square 50 is placed in the centre of the ceiling. In each of these squares a picture of some visible object is located; e. g. in 1, a pump; in 2, a swan; in 3, a man using a spade. This scheme of squares, numbers, and pictures is first to be committed to memory. Then if one would remember by aid of the system the date e. g. of the kings of England, he would create in his mind a picture in connection with each one of them, throw these pictures in imagination into the squares in the exact order of the regal succession, and associate the picture pertaining to the king with the picture fixed in the square to which he falls; in forming the new picture two things are important; it should be so conceived as to have some casual or slight association suggesting the name of the king, and also suggesting at the same time a word or phrase, which is devised by the person along with the ideal picture, and which expresses the date according to an alphabet of letters substituted for figures. E. g. to remember the date of Henry 7th, it is said the ideal picture of 7 hens is a good one for the purpose; the square to which he is assigned is 29; the picture fixed in this square (in the engraved illustration of the system) is a woman spinning on a small wheel; these two pictures then are to be somehow bound together, and it may be thus, the woman spinning sees 7 hens; the next thing is to form a word or phrase indicative of the date; and by the alphabet adopted in this system, "The oak rail" is such a phrase; the remaining step in this process of storage in the memory is to bind the phrase to the pictures, which may be done by imagining that the woman spinning sees 7 hens on The oak rail.-The following is the substitution alphabet; 1, be; 2, df; 3, gh; 4, j k z ; 5, 1; 6, m n ; 7, y q ; 8, r s ; 9, tv; 0, wx; and 100, St, 1,000, Th 100,000, Y.-See The New Art of Memory, founded on the principles of Feinaigle, illustrated hy engravings. Lond. 1813. 8. 2d ed. Cf. Lond. Quart. Rev. as above cited. -It is worthy of remark here, that the ancients, particularly the Roman orators, made use of a system of topical memory. Quintilian gives an account of a system, in which the various parts of a spacious mansion are employed somewhat as the several squares in the method of Feinaigle. The things to be remembered were connected by association with certain types, and these being arranged in order were assigned to the different parts of the house; "they assign" says he, "the first idea they wish to remember to the portico, the second to the hall; then they go round the inner courts; nor do they only commit these associatons to the bed. rooms and antirooms, but even to the furniture. When they wish to recollect these as sociations they recur mentally to those places in order from the beginning, and regain every sensible type, which they had entrusted to each particular spot, and this type at once sug gests the idea connected with it." 3. The third system is the Efficacious Method of Mr. Hallworth. In this plan a substitution of letters for figures is employed. Its peculiarity consists in this, that instead of forming mere barbarous and unmeaning words, like that of Grey, or words artificially associated with some image or picture, like that of Feinaigle, a significant sentence is formed, which states the event to be remembered and concludes with a word or phrase, that expresses something characteristic of the event, and at the same time, when interpreted according to the substitution alphabet, denotes the date. The alphabet of Hallworth is the following; 1, be; 2,dƒ ; 3, g, h, gh: 4, kl: 5, m n : 6, p,r: 7, s sh: 8, t, ch: 9, v wj, used as consonants; 0, th ph wh, and also qry. In forming words the vowels are used, just as may be convenient, without having any significancy; the consonants alone being considered in expressing a date; thus church [chrch] signifies 868; troop [trp], 866. To recollect by this method the date e. g. of the Flood, the following sentence is formed; The deluge comes and men die guilty; the phrase die guilty expresses the date, as the consonants dglt represent 2348. -For greater convenlence and scope in forming the characteristic phrases, the plan admits articles, prepositions, and conjunctions to be used, like the vowels, without significancy; e. g. Abel fell a sacrifice to Cain's hate and sin: htsn, 3875. Mr. Hallworth has taught his system by lectures in dif ferent parts of the country, and has published several little books in which its principles are explained and applied. See T. Hallworth's Efficacious Method of acquiring, retaining, and communicating Historical and Chronological Knowledge, N. Y. 1824. - Hallworth's method applied to General Ancient History. Also to Sacred History, &c. History of the United States. § 211. We shall complete our design, in reference to the actual dates of events in ancient and classical history, by a rapid glance at the Chronology of the principal states of ancient times.-We will mention first those whose capitals were in Asia. The principal Asiatic states or kingdoms were eight; the Assyrian; the Jewish; the Trojan; the Lydian; the Phænician; the Persian; the Syrian; and the Parthian. I. The Assyrian. This is considered as having commenced with the building of Babylon by NIMROD, B. C. 2217. The 1st period of its history may be that from Nimrod to NINIAS, B. C. 1945. In this period reigned the celebrated queen Semiramis, mother of Ninias. Under her the empire gained its greatest extent; reaching on the east to the sources of the Oxus and the Indus, including Persia, Media and Bactriana: comprising on the west Ethiopia, Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor to the Mediterranean; and limited on the north only by mount Caucasus, and on the south by the deserts of Arabia. Generally, however, the Assyrian empire included only the three countries in the valley of the Euphrates and Tigris, viz. Mesopotamia, Assyria, and Babylonia. The 2d period may be that from Ninias to SARDANAPALUS, who died B. C. 747. This long period, of about 1200 years, is involved in great obscurity. During it 33 kings are said to have reigned. On the death of Sardanapalus, three kingdoms were formed out of the empire; the Assyrian, with Nineveh as its capital; the Babylonian, with Babylon for its capital; and the Median, having Ecbactana for its capital. It may be proper, however, to consider the Assyrian monarchy as still continuing; and The 3d period may be that from Sardanapalus to ESARHADDON, B. C. 681. During this period of 66 years 4 kings reigned in Nineveh, of whom Esarhaddon was the last; and 10 kings reigned at Babylon. During this time the Assyrian history was intimately connected with that of the Israelites. In the year B. C. 681, Esarhaddon united together two of the three kingdoms, viz. the Assyrian and Babylonian. B The 4th and last period extends from Esarhaddon to CYRUS the Great, B. C. 536. At this time the united kingdom was subjected to Persia. At the same time, also, Cyrus united to Persia the kingdom of Media, which had continued its separate existence from the death of Sardanapalus. For a general view of the Assyrian history; Rollin's Ancient History, bk. iii. - Millot's Elements of History, vol. 1. p. 62. (Ed. Edinb. 1823. 5 vols. 8.)- The English Universal History. Lond. 1779-83. 50 vols. 8. (18 vols. Ancient.) vol. 111.- Prideaux, Connection of the O. and N. Testament. (for the time from Sardanapalus to Cyrus.)-Berosus &c. in Cory, cited P. II. § 236. - Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics and Commerce of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, Egyptians, &c. Oxf. 1830. 2 vols. 8. Transl. from his Ideen, cited P. I. § 171. — Sainte Croix, La ruine de Babylon, in the Mem. Acad. Inscr. vol. XLVIII. p. 1.For Assyria, and likewise for the several states and empires to be mentioned, we also refer to Heeren's States of Antiquity, cited § 215. 6. — Cf. also Meusel, cited P. II. $240. II. The Jewish. The history of this nation begins with ABRAHAM, B. C. 1921. It may be divided into eight periods. The 1st period extends from Abraham to the entrance into Canaan under JOSHUA, B. C. 1451. During this period they remained a nomadic nation. The 2d period includes the time from Joshua to the death of SAMUEL, B. C. 1060. During this period the nation was under the government of the judges and priests. Samuel was the last of the judges. Saul, the first king, was anointed as such some time before Samuel's death. The 3d period is from Samuel to the separation of the nation into the two kingdoms of Judah and Israel by the REVOLT under JEROBOAM, B. C. 975. This was the most flourishing period of the Jewish monarchy, marked by the reigns of Da vid and Solomon, and by the building of the Temple at Jerusalem, the capital. Respecting these reigns, see Christ. Spectator, 1v. 131; v. 528. The 4th period may include the history from the Revolt until the RESTORATION from the Babylonian Captivity, B. Č. 536. The two kingdoms continued separate until their destruction by the Babylonians. The ten tribes of Israel, whose capital was Samaria, were carried into captivity by Salmanazar, B. C. 721; the two tribes of Judah, by Nebuchadnezzar, B. C. 606. During this time 19 kings reigned over Judah at Jerusalem. The seventy years of the captivity are dated from the conquest of Judah by Nebuchadnezzar. The 5th period reaches from the Restoration by Cyrus, to the SUBMISSION Of the Jews to ALEXANDER, B. C. 332. During this period the Jews had continued in a state of at least partial dependence on the throne of Persia. The 6th period is from Alexander to the RE-ESTABLISHMENT of an independent monarchy under the MACCABEES, B. C. 168. After the death of Alexander and the division of his empire, made B. C. 301, the Jews were claimed by Syria and by Egypt, and exposed to the invasion or oppression of both. The persecution of Antiochus Epiphanes provoked the general revolt which led to the reestablishment of independence. The 7th period is from the Maccabees until the time of the Roman interference under POMPEY, B. C. 63. During this period the monarchy was maintained, but with many unhappy dissensions. The 8th and last period is from the first conquests of Pompey to the final DESTRUCTION of Jerusalem by Tirus, A. D. 70. For the Jewish history; the historical books of the O. Testament. - Berruyer, Histoire de peuple de Dieu &c. Par. 1742. 10 vols. 8.-Basnage, Histoire des Juifs &c. Haye, 1716. 15 vols. 12. Prideaux, Connect. of the O. and N. Testament. The French translation, said to be bet ter than the English original, is entitled Histoire des Juifs et des peuples voisins depuis la de cadence des Royaumes d'Israel et de Juda &c. Amst. 1725. 5 vols. 8.-J. L. Bauer, Handbuch der Geschichte der Hebr. Nation &c. Nürnb. 1800. 2 vols. 8. valuable.-H. H. Milman, History of the Jews. (Am. ed.) N. Y. 1830. 3 vols. 18. Cf. North Amer. Rev. vol. xx111. p. 234. · Jahn, Hebrew Commonwealth. Transl. from German, by C. E. Stowe. And. 1828. 8. III. The Trojan. Its origin is involved in darkness and fables, but is placed as early at least as B. Č. 1400. Of its chronology we can only say, that the state was destroyed by the Greeks in the reign of Priam, about B. C. 1184. The history of Troy consists of traditions preserved by the poets. Cf. P. III. § 132. — Mitfords's Greece, ch. i. IV. The Lydian. This commenced about B. C. 1400. Three dynasties of kings are said to have reigned, yet little is known of the history until the reign of CRESUS; and under him the kingdom was destroyed by CYRUS, B. C. 536. The capital was Sardis. The kingdom was in the time of Croesus very rich and powerful; its fate was decided by the battle of Thymbra. For the Lydian history; The English Universal History, vol. iv. as above cited. — Freret, on the battle of Thymbra, with a plate, in the Mem. de l'Acad. des Inser. vol. vi. p. 532. V. The Phoenician. This was in existence in the time of David, under a king named ABIKAL, B. C. 1050. The state continued until the Capture of Tyre by ALEXANDER, B. C. 332. Phoenicia seems not to have formed properly one state, but to have contained several cities with petty kings or princes, of which Tyre stood at the head. On the Phoenician history; Sanconiathon &c. cf. P. II. $238.- Rees, Cyclopædia, under Pha |