ARCHEOLOGY OF ROMAN LITERATURE.

3. The Eugubian Tables (Tabula Eugubina). These are seven tablets of brass, dug up in 1444, at Eugubium (Gubbio) a city in ancient Umbria near the foot of the Apennines. The inscriptions on five of the tablets are said to be in the Etruscan character and language. The other two are in Roman letters, but in a rustic jargon, between Latin and Etruscan. They were at first supposed to be of very high antiquity; but "it is now agreed that they do not reach further back than the fourth century before the Christian era;" and, Dunlop states that "the two tables in the Latin character were written towards the close of the sixth century of Rome."

See Dunlop, Hist. Rom. Lit. 1. p. 47.-Edinb. Rev. No. 80. p. 383.-Bahr, Gesch. Lit. Rom. (cited $114. 3.) p. 64.-The inscriptions are given in Gruter, as above cited.—also in Lanzi, Saggio di Ling. Etrusc.-and Orelli, as cited § 130.

4 u. The Inscription termed the Decree respecting the Bacchanalia, Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus. This decree was enacted B. C. 186. (xxxiv. 8.-18.) gives us the occasion and contents of it. By certain passages in that author concerning this edict, the authenticity of this monument is conLivy firmed. It is engraved upon a table of bronze, which was discovered in 1640, in the province of Abruzzo, in digging the foundations of a manor house. It contains the prohibition of the nocturnal celebration of the Bacchanalian rites, throughout the Roman dominion. and gaps, is about a foot square, and is now in the imperial collection at The tablet, upon which are some fractures Vienna.

See Senatusconsulti de Bacchanalibus explicatio, auctore Mattheo Egyptio (Egizio). Neap. 1729. Fol. This dissertation is reprinted in the 7th vol. of Drachenborch's edition of Livy. The edict itself is found in Gessner's and Ernesti's edition of Livy.-See also Schoell, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 1. p. 52.

5u. The Monumentum Ancyranum. This consists of several inscriptions on marble, upon the propylæum of a temple of Augustus at Ancyra (modern Angora) in Galatia. They record the achievements of that Emperor. The monument was discovered by Busbequius in 1553. It has been much disfigured by time, or barbarian violence.

See Gruteri Thes. Inser. ccxxx.-Chishull, Antiq. Asiat.-I. G. Baieri Marmoris Ancyrani historia. Jen. 1703. 4.-Remarques sur le monument d'Ancyre, Biblioth. Choisie. tome viii.— Jac. Gronovi Memoria Cossoniana, cui annexa est nova editio Monumenti Ancyrani. Lugd. Bat. 1695. 4.-Observ. sur le Mon. d'Ancyre, in the Mem. Acad. Inser. vol. 47. p. 85.

6u. The Fasti Capitolini. These are portions of the tablets anciently placed in the Capitol, on which were inscribed in succession the names of the consuls and other magistrates, and by means of which Roman chronology is much elucidated. They are tablets of marble discovered in the Forum, at Rome, 1547, and contain a list of the Consuls from the year 270 to the year 765 after the building of Rome. ments were united by the care of Cardinal Alexander Farnese, and placed in They were in a broken state. The fragthe palace of the Capitol, where they still remain.-Some additional portions were discovered at Rome in 1816.

See Gravi Thes. Ant. Rom. tome xi.-J. B. Piranesi, Lapides Capitolini. Rom. 1762. Fol.Nuovi framenti dei Fasti cons. Capitol. illustrati da Bartol. Borghesi, Milan, 1818-1820. 4.—Also C. Fea, Frammenti di Fasti consolari &c. Rom. 1820. Fol.-Verrius Flaccus has been supposed to be the author of the Fasti Capitolini, and they were published by Onufrius Pancinius, 1553, under the name of that grammarian. in which he mentions that Flaccus attached to a structure erected at Preneste twelve tablets This mistake was occasioned by a passage in Suetonius, of marble containing a Roman Calendar, Fasti kalendares. Four of these latter tables, or rather fragments of them, were discovered in 1770, and form what is called the Calendarium Prænestinum. They contain the months of January, March, April, and December, and cast much light on the Fasti of Ovid. They were published by P. F. Foggini, Fastorum anni Romani reliquiæ &c. Rom. 1779. Fol. The work contains a collection of the existing fragments of Roman Calendars.-Schall, Hist. Litt. Rom. vol. 11. p. 60. 65.-Behr, Gesch. Rom. Lit. p. 413.

(B) Coins and Medals.

§ 134. Without entering into any minute history of Roman coinage, we only remark that the first coins at Rome were probably struck under the reign of Servius Tullius, that the more ancient coins were for the most part of brass, and that silver coin was not introduced until B. C. 263, and gold not until B. C. 207. Besides the coins used as the current money, there were also a great many medals and

historical pieces or medallions (missilia, numismata maximi moduli), distinguished from the others by the absence of the letters S. C. which are commonly found upon the Roman coin, especially the brazen. On the gold and silver coins these letters are less frequently seen, and seem not to indicate the authority granted by the senate for the striking of the coin so much as for the erecting of the statues, triumphal arches and the like, which are represented on the reverses.

1. The remarks offered under a previous section (§ 93), respecting the utility and entertainment connected with the study of coins, are applicable here. The Roman coins particularly are interesting on account of the striking personifications and symbols found on their reverses. Many descriptions and allusions in the classical poets are beautifully illustrated from the figures and devices on the Roman coins.

On the connection between poetry and medals, see Addison's Dialogues upon the usefulness of ancient Medals especially in relation to the Latin and Greek Poets; in his Works, vol. 111. p. 273. of ed. N. York, 1837. 3 vols. 8.-See also Spence, as cited § 151.

2. On the Roman money coined in the time of the republic, very commonly was seen an image of victory, in a triumphal car, driving sometimes two horses, and sometimes four. Hence the pieces were called bigati or quadrati. The coins were also indented round the edges like a saw, and therefore termed serrati. Tacitus speaks of the money thus marked as the ancient and well known coin. It would seem that the later coin was adulterated.-Cf. Tac. De Mor. Germ. 5.-Plin. Hist. Nat. xxxIII. 3.

3. The pieces, which have been termed nummi contorniati, may be included perhaps among the medallions. They are distinguished by a rim which is wrought with much art. They may have been prize medals of illustrious athletæ, or may perhaps have been used as a sort of tickets for admission to public shows.

4. Medals seem to have been sometimes employed in ancient times, as in modern, for purposes of satire upon private individuals and upon rulers. The medals called Spintrian were probably of the satirical class, and are supposed by some to have been designed to ridicule the debaucheries of Tiberius in the island of Caprea.-Gourdin on Satyric Medals, Archæologia (as cited § 243. 3), vol. 1x. p. 61.

$135. There are two principal divisions of the Roman coins; the Consular, struck in the time of the republic, called also coins of the Roman families; and the Imperial, the series of which extends from Julius Cæsar to Heraclius. Of the Consular coins, the most rare are the golden; of the Imperial, the most rare are the brazen coins of Otho.

1. "The Consular coins include the following. 1. Brass coins.-These consist chiefly of large pieces of rude workmanship without any interesting imagery. In all these, the prow of a ship is constantly the figure on the reverse, with very few exceptions. Sometimes, indeed, they have a shell, two heads of barley, a frog, an anchor, or a dog, on the reverse. 2. Silver. Of this the denarius was the first and principal coin. It was stamped originally with X, denoting that the value was ten asses. On the reverse was Castor and Pollux, or a chariot of victory. Afterwards the busts of various deities make their appearance; and in the seventh century of Rome the portraits of illustrious persons deceased are met with. 3. Gold.-Most of these are of great value. The number of these exceeds not 100. The aureus is the general gold coin; but two or three gold semisses of families likewise occur."

The first head of a living person that was struck on Roman coins is said to have been that of Caesar the Dictator. But the features of deceased consuls had previously been struck both on the silver and on the gold coins.

"The Imperial coins include 1. Brass.-This is of three sizes; large, middle, and small. The first forms a most beautiful series, but very expensive. It is the most important of all the Roman coins, and exceeds even the gold in value. -The middle brass is next in value to the former; and in it are many rare and curious coins, particularly interesting to Britons, as elucidating the history of the island. The small brass series abounds also with curious coins. They are scarce till the time of Valerian and Gallienus, but very common afterwards. 2. Silver.-This series is very complete, and the cheapest of any; especially as the small brass becomes a fine supplement to it; the latter being had in plenty when the silver becomes scarce, and the silver being plentiful when the brass is scarce. 3. Gold. The Roman imperial gold coins form a series of great

beauty and perfection; but on account of their great price are beyond the purchase of private persons. 4. The colonial coins.-They occur only in brass. On many of the coins we meet with fine representations of temples, triumphal arches, gods, goddesses, and illustrious persons. But coins with those representations are by no means common; the colonial coins till the time of Trajan bearing only a plough, or some other simple badge of a colony. Camelodunum is the only colony in Britain of which we have any coins. 5. The minimi. This includes the smallest coins of all denominations, most of which do not exceed the size of a silver penny. They are the most curious of all. The reason of the scarcity of the small coins is probably their diminutive size; by reason of which they are mostly lost."

2. A great number of coins have been found, at different times, during the excavations at Pompeii. In one of the streets a skeleton was found, supposed to have been a priest of Isis; "in his hand was a bag of coarse linen, not entirely destroyed, containing three hundred and sixty silver coins, forty two of copper, and six of gold; and near him several figures belonging to the worship of Isis; small silver forks, cups, patera in gold and silver, a cameo representing a satyr striking a tamborine, rings set with stones, and vases of copper and bronze.”— "In several of the houses, skeletons with rings, bracelets, necklaces and other ornaments, together with many coins, were found."-" A pot of gold coins, principally of the reigns of Trajan and Antoninus Pius, was found by a peasant, in 1787, at Nellore in Hindostan."

3. It has been thought that false and base coin was fabricated by illegal coiners. Molds, which were employed for casting Roman coins have been found at Lyons in France and Edington in England.-J. Poole, on Molds for Roman coins &c. Archeologia (as cited § 242. 3.) vol. xiv. p. 99.

136. The writing upon the Roman coin is usually the legend, as it is called, on the head of the coin or on both sides; but there is sometimes an inscription more at length placed upon the reverse. The contents of the legend commonly point out the person whose image is impressed upon the principal side and indicate his rank; sometimes also a short notice of his exploits, forming the inscription, is upon the reverse. The date of the coin is often stamped upon it, either in whole words, or by certain letters or figures; and likewise the names of the cities where it was struck; sometimes even that of the artist, together with the value, particularly upon the Consular coins.

1. In order to read and to understand all these kinds of writing, it is necessary to be acquainted with the peculiar abbreviations, which are employed.-For a brief introduction to the subject, see I. C. Rasche, Lexicon Abruptionum, quæ in numismatibus Romanorum occurrunt. Norumb. 1777. 8.-Cf. § 131. 2.

2u. The coins of the Romans being among the most ancient monuments of their manner of writing, it is proper here again (cf. § 116), to refer to their orthography. It is not from mistake, but from ancient usage, that the orthography on the old coins differs from the modern. We find, for example, v in place of B in the word DANVVIVS; o instead of v in VOLKANVS, and DIVOS; EE for E in FEELIX; II for I in VIIRTVS; s and м suppressed at the end of words, as in ALBINV, CAPTV; xs for x, in MAXSVMVS; F instead of PH, as in TRIVMFVS.

§ 137. Much attention and caution must be exercised with regard to Roman as well as Grecian coins, in order to distinguish genuine from false, which are very numerous and of different kinds. Many of those that are offered as ancient, are struck in modern times with the ancient costume; others have been stamped in express imitation of really ancient coins, among which we may particularly notice those called Paduane, so celebrated on account of their good impression; others are cast similar to the old coins, by means of molds, and may be distinguished by traces of the casting; others are formed by putting together two ancient coins in order to obtain rare and unique pieces, which may be detected by a careful examination of the edges; others are really antique, but falsified by some change in their impression, or inscription.

See G. Beauvois, Maniere de discerner les medailles antiques de celles qui sont contrefaites. Par. 1739. 4. Translated into German and enlarged by Lipsius. Dresd. 1791. 4.

$138. Besides the works already mentioned (§ 99) as illustrating the subject of ancient coins, we will cite the following, which relate principally to Roman coins.

Charles Patin, Introduction a l'Histoire par la connoissance des medailles. Par. 1665. 12. — Ch. Patin, Histoire des Medailles, ou Introduction a la Connoissance de cette Science. Paris, 1695. 12.-Fulv. Vrsini Familiæ Romanæ in antiquis numismatibus ab urbe condita ad tempora D. Augusti; edit. Carol. Patin. Par. 1663. fol. J. Foy Vaillant, Nummi antiqui Familiarum Romanorum. Amst. 1703. 2 vols. fol.-Ejusd. Numismata Imperator. Romanor, præstantiora &c. cura T. F. Baldini. Rom. 1743. 3 vols. 4. Supplementum, op. Joh. Khell. Vindob. 1767. 4. Ejusd. Numismata ærea Imperatorum Roman. in coloniis, municipiis &c. Par. 1688. 2 vols. fol. By the see, Numismata Imperatorum, a Populis, Romanæ dictionis, Græce loquentibus, percussa. Amst. 1700. fol.-By same, Selectiora Numismata in Ære Maximí Moduli illustrata. Paris 1695. 4.- Adolphi Occonis, Numismata Imperatorum Romanorum præstantiora. Mediol. 1730. fol. - Thesaurus Morellianus 8. Familiarum Roman. Numismata Omnia. Comm. illust. Sigeb. Havercampus. Amst. 1734. 2 vols. fol. — Ans. Bunduri Numismata Imperatorum Romanor. a Trajano Decio ad Palæologos Augustos. Par. 1718. 2 vols. fol. Supplement, ed. H. Taninius, Rom. 1791. fol.—Car. Patini Imperator. Romanor. Numismata. Argent. 1671. fol. Amst. 1696. fol.-lo. Iac. Gesneri Numismata Antiqua Imperatorum Romanorum latina et græca. Tiguri, 1748. fol.; Numismata Antiqua Familiarum Romanarum. Tiguri, 1749. fol.-Wm. Cooke, The Medallic History of Imperial Rome, &c. Lond. 1781. 2 vols. 4. On medals of a large size, see Monger, Sur des Medaillons Romains d'une volume extraordinaire, in the Mem. de l'Institut. Classe d'Hist. et Lát. Anc. ix, 266.-Ant. Steinbuechel, Recueil de medaillons en or du Cabinet Imperial de Vienne. Vien. 1826.8. On the subject of Roman coins, K. O. Mueller, Archæologie &c. (as cited § 32. 4.) is a “very good authority."

$139. The most valuable collections of ancient coins are the following: at Paris, in the Royal library, and the Library of St. Genevieve; at Rome, in the Vatican, and the collection once belonging to Christina queen of Sweden, now to the duke of Bracciano; in the British Museum at London; the Imperial collection at Vienna; the Royal collection at Berlin; the Duke's collection at Gotha; the Royal collection at Stuttgart; and at Copenhagen. There are valuable catalogues of most of these public collections of coins.

See Kahler, Anweisung zur Reiseklugheit. Ed. Kinderling. Magdeb.1788. 8.-Eckhel (as cited 499.), Proleg. cap. xxiii.—Dictionnaire des Artistes, par Meusel.-Sulzer, Allg. Theor. &c. artide Antik, V.

1. Few genuine antiques have ever been brought to this country. Of really ancient coins, the Boston Atheneum probably possesses the largest number, having about 1400 Greek and Roman; of which less than 200 are silver, and the rest are copper or brazen. (Ms. Lett. of Dr. Bass, Lib. to Bost. Ath. 1836.) 2. Before leaving this subject, it is proper to remark that some examples of the manner in which symbols are employed on coins and medals may be seen by inspection of our Plate III. In fig. 6, Britain is represented by a woman reclining against a shield, and holding a spear in one hand, with her head resting on the other, as if in a contemplative mood. In fig. 9, the river Tiber is symbolized by the image of an old man with a branch of some plant, or perhaps some heads of grain, in his left hand, and his right hand on the prow of a vessel. In fig. 7, a coin of Trajan, the Danube is represented in a manner in some degree similar. In fig. 8, a coin of Antoninus Pius, the symbol of Italia appears, a woman sitting on a globe and holding a sceptre and a horn of plenty, indicating her universal dominion and her riches. On many pieces, Rome is exhibited as a goddess, the image being a hend with a helmet; as in fig. 1, a coin of the Aurelian family, on which the helmet is curiously wrought, so as to present in its form the head, neck, and wings of an eagle; in fig. 2, which is the piece of money called triens, the head on the obverse is likewise probably designed to represent the goddess Rome; as is also perhaps the head covered with a lion's skin instead of a helmet, in fig. 3, which is the obverse of a quadrans. The heads of deities were frequently placed on Roman coins; as that of Mercury in fig. 4, the obverse side of a sertens; and that of Janus, in fig. a, the obverse of a duplex denarius. Rome is symbolized sometimes by the eagle, as Athens is on Greek coins by the owl; as in fig. 10, which gives the obverse of another sextans; the reverse of this (not given in the plate) presents a wolf nursing Romulus and Remus, but the reverse of these brass pieces more commonly contains merely the prow of a ship, as in fig. 2: the points or dots on these pieces indicate their value; four, the tricas; three, the quadrans; and two, the scatans. We see the goddess of plenty or abundance represented, in fig. 5, a coin of the emperor Decius. The colonial coins of Antioch in Pisidia often bear, as in fig. 8, the device of a bull with a hump-back representing mount Taurus. Some of Cæsarea in Palestine show an eagle holding in his claws a thunderbolt, as in fig. t; the letters underneath, in this coin, probably stand for Colonia Augusta Cæsarea, or Cæsariensis; this city became a Roman colony after the conquests of Vespasian. Many of the coins of Vespasian bear upon the reverse a very striking symbol; as in fig. y, with the words JUDEA CAPTA and initials of SENATUS CONSULTO forming the legend, and the fate of conquered Palestine represented by a woman sitting solitary and weeping, under a palm-tree, upon a collection of arms, shields, helmets, &c. thrown upon the ground. There is here a remarkable coincidence with a prophetic declaration of Isaiah, iíì. 26; and she, desolate, shall sit on the ground.

The Plate presents a view of one side of some of the principal silver coins of the Romans. In fig. a, we have the obverse of the double denarius, equivalent to the didrachma of the Greeks; on the reverse was a quadriga. In fig. b, is the denarius, having its value of x asses of brass stamped upon it.This is the coin designated by the word penny as used in reference to Roman money in the common English version of the New Testament; it commonly had on it, in the period to which the New Testament history relates, the image of the Roman emperor, and his superscription, i. e. his name or its initials inscribed on it as in fig. r, a gold coin of Vespasian. (See Matt. xx11. 20. Mk. x11. 16.) By some it has been supposed that the thirty silver pieces (agyiota) for which Judas covenanted to betray his master and Lord were so many denarii; while others think that the silver piece here intended was the siclus, oixios, a Jewish coin equivalent to the Attic tetradrachma. (Cf. Matt. xxvi. 15. Acts. xix. 19.-Upham's Trans. of Jahn's Arch. § 117.)- -In flg. c, we have the quinarius, or half denarius, with its value of v asses stamped on it. The sestertius is given, in fig. d, having on the reverse Castor and Pollux on horseback; usually marked by the letters H's on its obverse. In fig. e, is a silver coin presenting the eagle as a symbol of Rome, with the name of the city in the exergue. In fig. 0, we have a very small gold coin, with its value of x x sesterces enstamped, which was sometimes named scrupulum from its weight.

(c) Manuscripts.

$140. What has been said (§ 100-106) concerning the intrinsic value, the antiquity, the preservation, and the study of Greek manuscripts, is in general applicable to the Roman, and we need not here repeat it. The works of very many Latin writers, as well of the most flourishing period of Roman literature, as of later times, have been preserved and handed down to us by means of written copies. These manuscripts, however, belong not to the classical ages. Latin manuscripts, like most of the Greek, are not of earlier date than the sixth century after Christ. We must generally consider those the most ancient, whose writing bears most resemblance to the characters found upon coins and inscriptions. But this criterion is not a certain one, as in after ages the ancient manuscripts were sometimes copied with a perfect imitation of their manner of writing.

See Gatterer on the method of determining the age of Mss. in the Comment. Societ. Gatt. 8th Band or vol.-Also Schonemann, Versuch eines vollst. Systems der Diplomatik.---Pfeiffer, cited § 53.- Taylor's Transmission, &c. cited § 58.

$141. We must refer to a later origin the small Roman characters, punctuation, and the contracted form of the diphthongs and æ, which were originally written in full ae and oe. The letter y, from the seventh century, was often marked with a point y; on the contrary, the i was written without a point until the end of the tenth century; afterwards it took an accent over it, i; in the fourteenth century the accent was changed into a point. From the small Roman letters arose, by some alterations, the Gothic and Lombard characters, and those of the Francs and Anglo Saxons; as these people derived the art of writing chiefly from Italy. The larger portion of the ancient Latin manuscripts now in existence belongs to this age. During the 9th and 10th centuries, more attention was paid to the beauty and elegance of the characters. In the 11th century enlarged letters were introduced, and more abbreviations, the multiplication of which in after times, and the overburdening of the letters with useless appendages, disfigured the writing and rendered it more difficult to read.

Cf. 117. Fac-similes and specimens, to illustrate the different modes of writing found in Latin manuscripts, are given in Mabillon de Re Diplomatica.-See also Waltheri Lexicon Diplomaticum cum speciminibus Alphabetorum et Scripturarum. Gætt. 1745. 3 vols. fol. - Nouveau Traite de Diplom. tom. 11. and 111.

$142. Since the revival of letters, which was hastened and facilitated by the discovery and study of the classical manuscripts, they have been carefully collected, compared, copied and published. Pe