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period to the exiftence of that fyftem which forms the admirable conftitution of this living world. But if the origin of this earth is founded in the fea, the matter washed from our land is only proceeding in the order of the fyltem. In examining the ftructure of our earth, we find it no lefs evidently formed of loose and incoherent materials, than that those materials had been collected from different parts, and gathered together at the bottom of the fea. Confequently, if this continent of land, first collected in the fea, and then raised above its furface, is to remain a habitable earth, and to refift the moving waters of the globe, certain degrees of folidity or confolidation must be given to that collection of loofe materials; and certain degrees of hardness must be given to bodies which were fort or incoherent, and confequently fo extremely perishable in the fituation where they now are placed.

But, at the fame time that this earth must have solidity and hardnefs to refift the fudden changes which its moving fluids would occafion, it must be made subject to decay and wafte upon the furface expofed to the atmosphere; for fuch an earth as were made incapable of change, or not fubject to decay, could not afford that fe tile foil which is required in the fyftem of this world; a foil on which depend the growth of plants and lire of animals-the end of its intention.'• The doctrine of our theory is briefly this, that, whatever may have been the operation of diffolving water, and the chemical action of it upon the materials accumulated at the bottom of the fea, the general folidity of that mafs of earth, and the placing of it in the atmosphere above the furface of the fea, has been the immediate operation of fire or heat melting and expanding bodies. Here is a propofition which may be tried, in applying it to all the phenomena of the mineral region fo far as I have feen, it is perfectly verified in that application.

We have another propofition in our theory, one which is ftill more interefting to confider: it is this, that as, in the mineral regions, the loofe or incoherent materials of our land had been confolidated by the action of heat; fo, upon the surface of the earth expofed to the fluid elements of air and water, there is a neceffary, principle of diffolution and decay for that confolidated earth which from the mineral region is expofed to the day. The folid body being thus gradually impaired, there are moving powers continually employed, by which the fummits of our land are conftantly degraded, and the materials of this decaying furface travelled towards the coaft. There are other powers which act upon the fhore, by which the coaft is neceffarily impaired, and our land fubjected to the perpetual encroachment of the ocean.'- - Our folid earth is every where wafted, where expofed to the day The fummits of the mountains are neceffarily degraded. The folid and weighty materials of thofe mountains are every where urged through the valleys, by the force of running water. The foil, which is produced in the deftruction of the folid earth, is gradually travelled by the moving water; but is conftantly fupplying vegetation with its neceffary aid. This travelled foil is at laf depofited upon the coaft, where it forms moft fertile countries.

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But the billows of the ocean agitate the loofe materials upon the fhore, and wear away the coaft, with the endless repetitions of this act of power, or this imparted force. Thus the continent of our earth, fapped to its foundation, is carried away in the deep, and funk again at the bottom of the fea, from whence it originated.

We are thus led to fee a circulation in the matter of this globe, and a system of beautiful œconomy in the works of nature. This earth, like the body of an animal, is wafted at the fame time that it is repaired. It has a state of growth and augmentation; it has anothee ftate, which is that of diminution and decay. This world is thus destroyed in one part, but it is renewed in another; and the operations by which this world is thus conftantly renewed, are as evident to the fcientific eye, as are thofe in which it is neceffarily deftroyed. The marks of the internal fire, by which the rocks beneath the fea are hardened, and by which the land is produced above the furface of the fea, have nothing in them which is doubtful or ambiguous. The destroying operations, again, though placed within the reach of our examination, and evident almoft to every obferver, are no more acknowledged by mankind, than is that system of renovation which philofophy alone difcovers.' Thofe various powers of nature have thus been employed in the theory to explain things which commonly appear; or rather it is from things which univer fally appear that caufes have been concluded, upon fcientific principies, for thofe effects. A fyftem is thus formed, in generalifing all thole different effects, or in afcribing all thofe particular operations to a general end. This end, the fubject of our understanding, is then to be confidered as an object of defign; and in this defign we may perceive, either wifdom, fo far as the ends and means are properly adapted; or benevolence, fo far as that fyftem is contrived for the benefit of beings who are capable of fuffering pain and pleasure, and of judging good and evil.

But, in this phyfical differtation, we are limited to confider the manner in which things present have been made to come to pass, and not to inquire concerning the moral end for which those things may have been calculated. Therefore, in pursuing this object, I am next to examine facts, with regard to the mineralogical part of the theory, from which, perhaps, light may be thrown upon the fubject; and to endeavour to anfwer objections, or folve difficulties, which may na. turally occur from the confideration of particular appearances.'

The firft idea, or outline, of the theory here explained, illuftrated, and rendered fo probable, was sketched out in the protogea of Leibnitz. It ferved as the grand pillar of the system of Buffon, Dr. Hutton has improved on that fyftem, by recognifing, to a greater extent, the agency of fubterraneous fire, by a vaft variety of juft and ingenious obfervations on the ftratification of minerals, and the general order, harmony, and confiftency, that runs throughout all the appearances on this globe,

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and of this globe as connected with the planetary fyftem.-He is aided in his investigation by the contemplation of final causes→→→→ not by cutting short all inquiry into natural causes, or the order of fucceffion and connexion that prevails in the natural world; but by limiting his fearches to causes that actually exist in nature, and that are alfo equal and fuited to the production of the grand effect inquired into; namely, the means by which such a circulation is kept up in the natural elements, as to render its furface a fit bed for vegetables, pasture for animals, and refidence for fuch an intelligent being as man. For, as he justly obferves, whatever may be thought of fuch a benevolent and noble defign having been formed in a creating mind (though this be the most philophical and fimple folution of the phenomenon in question)fuch an end, or final cause, exists in nature.

The caufes here affigned of the great phenomena of gæology, or the theory of the earth, are indeed fuch as actually exift, and are equal and adapted to the effect; provided we allow, with our author, for their operation, if not an eternity of time, yet a period of duration that bids defiance to all calculation, and eludes even the grasp of imagination. But this does not seem, at least obviously, compatible with the Mofaic hiftory of the creation. Befides, this fyftem does not account for the original formation of the world; for the ftate in which it was when first launched from the hand of its Creator: fo that a queftion recurs, fimilar to that of the previous exiftence of the chicken or egg. True it is, Dr. Hutton does not pretend to inquire into efficient caufes. But the mind cannot refrain from indulging conjectures and hypothetical theories, and liftening to teftimony on fo fublime and interesting a fubject. The extreme variety and state of fluctuation in which all things are, in the prefent fyftem, and which are fo clearly illuftrated by every theory of the earth, do not by any means accord with our natural ideas of eternity and neceffity of exiftence. There was a time when the form, at least, of the world was not such as it is at prefent. Rather than fuppofe that fuch a varied face, and ́ fucceffive movements of nature could be eternal, or uncaused, the active though rude imaginations of the ancients fought for an ancestry to nature in chaos and eternal night: a theory bearing some resemblance to the account in the book of Genefis.

It is now affumed, by many, that the Mofaic chronology is difproved by gæology, and particularly by mineralogy. But, before the final decifion of this important queftion, it were to be wifhed that we had accurate and fatisfactory accounts of the various revolutions of nature, within a given period, fuppofe two thousand years; and that it could be afcertained, with fome tolerable precifion, how far we may, from what is known to us,

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draw conclufions as to what is concealed; and, finally, whether, in the first period of the exiftence of our globe, we fhould not attribute to it very different powers, a greater scope for the operation of those powers, and confequently greater and more rapid changes than any at prefent difcovered.-Mr. Brydone gives the world an inconceivably great age, on the ftrength of fome obfervations, tending to fhew how great a period of time muft elapfe before fheets of lava can become proper receptacles of feeds, and nurses of vegetation; but other travellers, in both Sicily and Naples, and other parts, affirm that lava, in a very fhort time, is found, in many places, to be covered with the moft luxuriant vegetation. An inquiry into this subject might not be unworthy the official, nor unfuitable to the perfonal character and ftudies of the Bishop of Llandaff.

We here interrupt our account and obfervations on Dr. Hutton's Theory of the Earth; and look forward to the publication of the other parts, which he has promifed; fincerely wishing that the state of his health may be such as to enable him to fulfil his intentions.

ART. III. Godwin's Inquiry concerning Political Juftice.

[ Continued from our Number for February laft. ]

TT would be ufelefs to give a detail of the circumstances that

have fo long interrupted the account begun in a former Number, of Mr. Godwin's Political Juftice. Suffice it to say, that the interruption was not defigned, but merely accidental. -Our readers may, perhaps, retain fome impreffion of our analysis of this book, fo far as we carried it on. Mr. Godwin avows, that he was determined to bring forth his fyftem by the French revolution, by which only he was reconciled to the defirableness of a government of the fimpleft conftruction. To the fame • event he owes the determination of mind which gave existence to this work.'-He forms, in his imagination, a ftandard of excellence and virtue, and confiders the relations and duties of mankind to each other in fuch an ideal state. But he is obliged, when he defcends to the actual state of fociety, fo mixed, imperfect, and vicious, to make a great variety of exceptions, and to enter into a kind of political cafuiftry, and make great and frequent ufe of the faculty of difcretion. He finds that there are many, very many, cafes or predicaments to

which his laws, fimple and fublime, do not defcend. While he carries his head above the clouds, he is obliged to walk on the ground. He frequently ftumbles into ruts and holes; but, by a dexterity of political tactics, he maintains or recovers his erect mien, and maintains his fyftem with much addrefs. He is a nimble walker, but he is wrongly directed. He poffeffes more fubtlety of mind, than foundness of fenfe, or comprehenfion of views. He has lively parts, but falfe principles-as we shall endeavour to fhew, after we have completed the analyfis, which we had begun, of the work before us.

It will not appear furprising that a difciple of the French school should teach and preach liberty and equality. The liberty and equality that Mr. Godwin would establish is more unbounded, more chimerical, and more inconfiftent with the exiftence of fociety, than any of all the innumerable systems of political œconomy and jurifprudence to which the French revolution has given birth. His fyftem could not be realised even among favages. He would emancipate men from all real reverence and refpect for established powers; although, in the prefent rude and imperfect ftate of fociety, it may be prudent and neceflary to fhew an outward obedience, contrarily to the inward dictates of our understanding. In all things we are to confider what it is that we owe to what is right and juft; that is, what we owe to political fociety, which, being nothing more than an aggregation of individuals,' its claims and duties must be the aggregate of their claims and duties. He confiders, in fact, all the individual members of a state as independent and fovereign princes, whofe duty it is to judge concerning what is molt fit and convenient for the whole fociety; and on all occafions to advife, reafon, and expoftulate, and, as much as poffible, to act accordingly. The fovereign, then, or fupreme power, ought to be the reprefentative of the general understanding and will, the very genius and foul of the fociety. The chiefs who went to war against Troy were independent princes, though Agamemnon was king over all; and then only did the fubordinate chiefs yield him obedience and refpect when they thought it proper to do fo. Mr. Godwin has not made this comparison: but the cafe we have ftated comes the nearest of any thing we know, in real hiftory, to the ideal government of our author. Achilles withdrew his men, and reviled Agamemnon to his face, becaufe he was a powerful chief, and could do it with fafety. Others, of inferior note, might not, and did not. Since it is, according to our author, the duty of every one to worship and obey the king of his own creation; that is, the fyftem of laws and conduct that he may

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