am h is tenoned, the other end resting in the wall-hole at h, fig. 1/9; the am e is tenoned into e c, and is let into the wall at the other end; a am is similarly fixed at m, at the level of the tread g, fig. 179; and from to c an inclined piece is fixed to form the string of the steps from m to c, i to g, fig. 179. In fig. 181 e represents the post m, fig. 179; a the post c;fshows the mode of attaching the inclined beam cm at the upper end, that at the lower. The return steps at the top of the stair are supported timbers n o p b, fixed in the same, as already described at ƒ e, &c. SECTION FOURTH. JOINERY. HE distinction between the two operations of Carpentry and Joinery ay be simply stated. In the former, the framing and erecting of avy timbers for the purposes of floors, roofs, partitions, &c., is the prinpal business; in the latter, the making and fitting up of external and ternal furnishings-as door-cases, doors, windows, window-frames, &c.e the operations to be performed. In both, however, there are many ommon operations, which differ only in the fact that, for the purposes of inery, they may be on a smaller scale than when required for those of rpentry. In general, all timbers used for carpentry are left rough as ey come from the operation of the saw or the axe; while in joinery, all terior surfaces are made smooth and uniform by appropriate instruments. The tools required for the simple operations of joinery, to be carried at by the emigrant, may be enumerated as follows:-the "ripping-saw," or cutting up heavy planks-the teeth in this are 96 to the foot, or 16 to e two inches; the "hand-saw "-for ordinary work, 45 teeth to the foot; e "sash-saw," for cutting fine work, with a brass back-it has 156 teeth the foot. For cutting dovetails, a small saw, having 180 teeth to the foot, used. Tenons may be cut out by means of the "sash-saw." A long, thin, nd narrow saw, termed a "keyhole-saw," having no back, and useful for atting out holes in wood: a size as follows will be useful-length 12 inches, readth at point inch or ths, breadth at handle inch. The planes sed in joinery are very numerous. The "jack-plane" is used for taking e rough surface off the timber to be smoothed in surface. It is used by king off as much as can be taken in by one arm-stretch-the workman benning at the near side of the plank, and gradually taking off the rough ross the breadth of the plank. On a part of the plank within arm-reach beg done, the workman moves farther along, until the whole surface is acted pon. To bring this surface properly smooth, and to a level, a larger and eavier plane is used, termed the "trying-plane." Shavings are taken off ith this the whole length of the plank. To test the level of the surface, straight-edge (that is, a piece of wood about 18 inches long, inch thick, ad 2 inches broad, having one edge perfectly true and square) is laid across e face, and the workman looks along the plank, where the straight-edge is lying on it: all inequalities are then easily observed, and are to be reduced by the plane. As the edges of the plane are generally accurately cut, the workman sometimes tests the "truth" of the surface of the work by laying the edge of the under side of the plane across the face of the plank. The "hand or smoothing plane" is used for giving a final truth and smoothness to the work, and for finishing up small work. It is used with both hands in some operations-with only one in others. It is much shorter than the two others, being about 7 inches-the length of jack-plane being 18, and that of the trying plane 22 inches. For making varieties of mouldings, "moulding-planes" are used; but as the operations are rather difficult, and not much required for ordinary work, we do not here describe them. The emigrant should, however, provide himself with a "rebate-plane” for forming rebates on the edges of planks, framing, &c. The nature of a rebate we have already described. The "plough " for sinking a "groove," and the plane for making the “ tongue," are also required. Chisels are numerous; but the "paring-chisel," of various sizes, from 4 inch in breadth to 1 inch, will be all that is necessary. The "mortise chisel" will also be necessary. Gouges" are circular chisels, and are used for making hollows: they are of various sizes. Small holes are made by "brad-awls" and "gimlets"; they are of various sizes. Circular holes, of larger diameter, are made by means of a "brace" and "bit"; the bits are of various sizes. Screwdrivers various sizes will be required; as also "hammer," "pincers," or "pliers." To assist the workman in marking off a line on a plank, parallel to the edge, and at any distance required, an instrument termed the " gauge" is required. This may be made by the workman emigrant, according to the drawing in fig. 182. A piece of hard wood d d, some 6 or 9 inches 66 one side a small mortised hole c cut in it, about 4 org broad and deep. This piece a a is passed over d d, as e, and can be secured at any part by means of a small wedge f, passed into and driven up the mortised hole e By means of a rule, the distance between the edge of the nail and face of e may be arranged as required; and by putting the face of e to the edge of plank, and drawing it along, the edge of the nail will draw a line on the face of the plank, at a distance from its edge, corresponding to the distance of the nail from face of e. For the purpose of assisting the workman in his various operations, the "bench" is an indispensable requisite. This may be described as a species of framed table, having a level top, and a side-board perforated with holes, about 1 inch diameter, as in fig. 183. It is provided with a wooden closing-jaw and screw at one end, by which the plank to be operated upon is firmly fastened. As the screw, however, may not be easily nade or obtained by the emigrant, we show in fig. 184 a contrivance which will serve in its place: a a is the top of table, e a horizontal piece frame of bench: it is about 6 inches broad. An irregular piece d, about 1 inch thick, is nailed on to the top of e, at its outer end, forming an ngular space, into which a wooden wedge, 1 inch thick, is driven. This olds the plank or other work f to be operated upon, while the other end 8 supported by the bench-pin g, which is passed into one of the numerous oles made in the side-board (see fig. 183). The bench-pin h is about 7 inches long up to the shoulder, and is cut out of one piece of wood. For the convenience of sawing up timber, &c., trestles or saw-benches, a a, fig. 185, are used, on which to place the plank b b while being sawn. The dotted figure shows the side elevation of one trestle, the others being shown at the ends. The scale of this diagram is inch to the foot. Having thus described the tools, &c., required by the emigrant, to carry but the most simple operations of joinery, we shall now proceed to illustrate various constructions, as windows, doors, &c. In fig. 186 we give a Fig. 186. H a diagram of the framing for a window 4 feet high-that is, between upper and under side of lintels a a, a a-and 2 feet broad between inner side of side-posts bb. Part of the length of side-posts are broken off to save room. The lintels a a, a a are 4 by 3; the side-posts, same size, are attached to these by any of the joints already described; a centre rail c, 4 by 2, divides the window into two. Fig. 187 shows the plan of this, where the angular form of wall o o is shown, commencing at upper side of lower lintel a a, fig. 186, and terminating at upper side of lintel a a. The window-sill, in the inside of room, is formed by placing a piece of boarding, inch thick, in the space between o o at m, and projecting over inside wall about inch. An exterior sill may be made by nailing to outside of under lintel, a' d tain glass, we show a simple frame in fig. 188, a piece of timber inches square-the upper side sloping, and under side throated (see fig. 119). On the supposition that the emigrant, on first settling, cannot ob adapted to transparent waterproof calico. In fig. 189, the manner of putting the frame together Fig. 190. leather hinges, one side nailed to the frame, and the other to the side-posts bb, fig. 187; co are the astragals, placed at equal distances, on which the calico is fastened with small nails. A side view of the frame is given. The calico should be nailed inside the frame. Instead of calico, thin sheet gutta-percha would be eligible. The calico may be made transparent by paint ing it with boiled linseed-oil. Instead of forming the rebate on the side posts of doors, windows, &c (as in fig. 187, at 6), a thin piece of wood (as a, fig. 190) may be nailed on the face of side-post or lintel b, as much shorter or narrower as the depth of rebate required. The thickness of c may be inch, or ineh at most. In the simple kind of window now described, each half of the window opens like a door, and is termed French window. In fig. 191 we give the drawing of a sash-window, the upper half c of which is fixed, the lower being movable-that is, capable of being lifted up. The lower movable sash is, >wever, not balanced by sash-weights, but it is retained in its place by a mple catch, or a piece of wood, at any desired height. The construction a balanced sash is of too complicated a kind to be attempted by any but 1 experienced workman. The sketch to the left is a section (vertical), at to the right being an elevation: a a a a is the framing, 5 by 3; á á le wall, 14 inches thick; c the upper sash, firmly nailed to the framing the lower movable sash, which slides up into the space e e. The lower sh d is prevented from coming out of its place by two bars c c (fig. 192), inch thick, and inch wide, nailed to the inside and outside of side-posts a a. he outer one, c, is only continued from bottom lintel up to the under side of upper sash; the inner one, c, ich broad by thick; a rebate is made on both sides, as b, inch deep, Fig. 194. Fig. 195. 非 and of breadth so as to leave the front a inch broad. The sides inch broad, cc are |