high office of President of the United States whose opinions and purposes are hostile to slavery." Kentucky and Missouri were divided, and had representatives in the governments and armies of both sections. On the 4th of February, 1861, a convention met at Montgomery, Alabama, in which all the States which had seceded previous to that date were represented. A constitution was formed and adopted, and the title of "Confederate States of America" was given to the new organization. Jefferson Davis, of Mississippi, was elected President, and Alexander H. Stephens, of Georgia, was elected Vice-President of the confederacy. Hostilities commenced with the bombardment of Fort Sumter (April 12, 1861), which was held for the Federal government by Major Anderson, with 70 men. The fort was several times set on fire, and on the 14th of April the garrison surrendered and marched out with the honors of war. On the following day President Lincoln issued a proclamation calling out 75,000 volunteers for three months, which was speedily followed (May 3) by a call for 64,000 men for the army and 18,000 for the navy, to serve "during the war." The President also declared the ports of the seceded States blockaded (April 19). In the South preparations for war were vigorously carried on. General Robert E. Lee was appointed commander of the Confederate troops in Virginia (May 10), and the Mississippi River was blockaded at Memphis (May 23). A Union force numbering 6000 men was repulsed at Big Bethel, Va. (June 10); and the main body of the Confederates, about 30,000 strong, which was concentrated at Manasses Junction, defeated an equal number of Federal troops, under General McDowell, in the famous battle of Bull Run (July 21). On the following day General George B. McClellan was appointed commander of the army of the Potomac. He had been successful in wresting the western part of Virginia out of the hands of the Confederates, and in the following year (Dec. 31, 1862) that section was admitted into the Union under the name of "West Virginia.” When the Federal Congress met (July 5, 1861), the President had asked for 400,000 men and $400,000,000. The result of the battle of Bull Run showed that the war was likely to be protracted, and Congress voted 500,000 men and $500,000,000. The Confederate Congress authorized the enlistment of 400,000 men. During the remainder of this year (1861), however, the military operations were not very decisive, both sides being fully occupied in arming and disciplining troops. The Union force, 1900 strong, commanded by General Stone, which was sent across the Potomac at Ball's Bluff, and left without support, was attacked by a superior force of Confederates and nearly annihilated. On the 7th of November a Union force under General Grant, after capturing the Confederate camp at Belmont, Mo., was finally repulsed with loss. On the same day a naval force under Admiral Du Pont made its way into Port Royal entrance, on the coast of South Carolina, and captured Forts Walker and Beauregard. On the day

after this victory, Captain Wilkes, commanding the United States frigate San Jacinto, overhauled the British mail steamer Trent, and took from her Messrs. Mason and Slidell, Confederate ambassadors to England and France. This act caused great excitement in Great Britain and in the United States; another war seemed inevitable; but the disavowal of the act by the Federal government and the surrender of the envoys averted the threatened danger.

At the beginning of the year 1862 the entire Union force in the field was about 450,000 men, 200,000 of whom were in the vicinity of Washington, under McClellan. The whole Confederate force was not far from 350,000 men, occupying about half of the States of Kentucky, Missouri and Virginia, and the whole of the remaining Southern States. During the month of January, Kentucky was the sole field of military operations. Colonel Humphrey Marshall was defeated near Prestonburg (Jan. 10) by a Union force under Colonel Garfield, and driven into Virginia, and General Thomas defeated the Confederates under Generals Crittenden and Zollicoffer, in the battle of Mill Spring (Jan. 19). General Grant, assisted by Commodore Foote with his flotilla of gunboats, took Fort Henry, on the Tennessee River (Feb. 6). The greater part of the garrison escaped to Fort Donelson, on the Cumberland River, which General Grant captured, together with 12,000 prisoners and 40 cannon, ten days later. An expedition under General Burnside and Commodore Goldsborough, which sailed from Fortress Monroe (Jan. 12, .1862), captured Roanoke Island (Feb. 8), Newbern, N. C. (March 14), and Beaufort (April 25). On the 9th of March occurred one of the most remarkable naval battles on record. The Confederate iron-clad Virginia, formerly the United States frigate Merrimac, had made a descent upon the Union fleet, near Fortress Monroe, on the preceding day, and had destroyed the wooden vessels Cumberland and Congress. During the night the floating battery Monitor arrived ; and when the Virginia returned to the attack, she was beaten off, after an action of five hours, and forced to return to Norfolk. This was the "trial trip" of the Monitor, and the result was so satisfactory to the Federal government that a fleet of monitors was built with all possible despatch. On the 8th of March an important battle was finished at Pea Ridge, in the western part of Arkansas, between Union troops under General S. R. Curtis and Confederates under General Earl Van Dorn. The conflict had lasted for three days, and the Union forces were finally victorious. The great activity now displayed at so many different points was owing to an order issued by President Lincoln commanding all the Union armies to advance on the 22d of February, 1862. On the 6th of April, General Grant was defeated and driven back to the Tennessee River, in the battle of Shiloh, losing 2500 prisoners, including General Prentiss. On the following day reinforcements arrived under General Buell; the battle was renewed, and the Confederates were forced to retreat. On the same day

(April 7), Island No. 10, in the Mississippi River, a short distance below its junction with the Ohio, was taken from the Confederates by General Pope and Commodore Foote, who had been acting together, the one with land-forces, the other with a flotilla of gunboats. The prisoners numbered 8000. Fort Pulaski, near Savannah, Ga., was captured, after a bombardment of 30 hours, by Captain (afterward Major-General) Gillmore (April 11), and during the same month Farragut and Porter, with a gunboat and mortar fleet, began (April 24) to bombard Fort St. Philip, on the eastern bank, and Fort Jackson, on the western bank, of the Mississippi, below New Orleans. On the 24th the fleet ran past the forts and fought a terrific battle with a Confederate fleet. On the 26th New Orleans was taken, and it remained from that time in the possession of the Union forces. We have reserved the most important movements, or at least those of the largest army, for the last. The army of the Potomac, having been taken in transports to Fortress Monroe, commenced (April 3d) its march toward Richmond, under the command of General McClellan. The siege of Yorktown consumed a month; and when that place was evacuated (May 4), the Confederates had greatly strengthened the defences of their capital. On the 23d of May, McClellan reached a point within 7 miles of Richmond, but his efficient force was very much diminished, while that of the Confederates was constantly increasing. "Stonewall Jackson" and Ewell had forced General Banks out of the Shenandoah valley, and threatened Washington. Not only the forces intended for McClellan, but militia. called from the Northern States, were required for the defence of the Federal capital. McClellan gained (May 31) the battle of Fair Oaks, or Seven Pines; but Jackson now moved rapidly southward to co-operate with Lee. McClellan was obliged to change his base of supplies from the York River to the James. This hazardous movement was accomplished at the expense of a succession of the most desperate battles ever fought upon this continent-viz., those of Oak Grove (June 25), Mechanicsville (June 26), Gaines' Mill (June 27), Savage's Station (June 29), White Oak Swamp (June 30) and Malvern Hill (July 1). Both armies fought with desperate valor, the advantage finally remaining with the Confederates; for though the Union forces reached the James River, the peninsular campaign was a failure so far as its object (the taking of Richmond) was concerned, and the Confederates were so encouraged that they assumed the offensive during the month of August. McClellan was recalled and placed (Sept. 1) in command of all the troops about Washington. Lee pushed across the Potomac into Maryland, and occupied Frederick (Sept. 6) and Hagerstown (Sept. 10), but was defeated at South Mountain (Sept. 14) and at Antietam (Sept. 17), the latter battle lasting from early dawn until twilight. Lee was forced to recross the Potomac. The campaign in Maryland had cost the Confederates 30,000 men; but between the battles of

South Mountain and Antietam Stonewall Jackson had taken Harper's Ferry (Sept. 15), with 11,583 men and an immense quantity of munitions of war. On the 7th of November, McClellan was superseded by General Burnside, who led the army against the Confederates massed at Fredericksburg, Va., and there met (Nov. 13) with a disastrous defeat, losing 12,000 men. During the year 1862, President Lincoln had issued a call for 300,000 volunteers for the war, and on the 9th of August another for 300,000 men for nine months, who were to be drafted unless they volunteered promptly. On the 2d of September was issued the notice of the memorable emancipation proclamation, declaring that all the slaves in the States and portions of States which should be "in rebellion against the United States" on the 1st of January, 1863, should be "thenceforward and for ever free." The proclamation itself was issued on the day just named. This measure gave rise to much excited discussion. On the 25th of January, 1863, General Burnside was relieved, at his own request, and succeeded by General Joseph Hooker. The latter led his army across the Rappahannock (April 28), and six days afterward fought the battle of Chancellorsville, in which, on the 2d of May, the Union troops were disastrously defeated. On the 3d they recovered all that they had lost; but on the 4th they were forced to retire, having lost more than 11,000 men. In the following month, Lee, emboldened by his success, invaded Maryland (June 14), and moved on toward Pennsylvania. The army of the Potomac, the command of which was transferred (June 28) from General Hooker to General George G. Meade, followed on the right flank of the Confederates, and General Lee was forced to concentrate his forces at Gettysburg, Pa., and to give battle (July 1). The struggle was contested for three days with the most desperate courage on both sides, and Lee was finally defeated, with the loss of thirty thousand killed and wounded, 14,000 prisoners and 25,000 stand of small arms. The Federal loss was nearly 23,000 in killed, wounded and missing. The Confederates recrossed the Potomac and retreated slowly through Virginia to a good position on the Rapidan. Meade followed closely but cautiously, and by the middle of August he also was beyond the Rappahannock, and there the armies lay for a long time confronting each other. On the 5th of October, Lee again advanced northward and compelled Meade to fall back upon the line of Bull's Run. After destroying the railroad from Manassas Junction to the Rapidan River, he established a strongly-fortified camp between that stream and Orange Court-House. During these manœuvres, from the 8th to the 23d of October, there was heavy skirmishing. On the 7th of November, 2000 Confederates were captured by Generals Sedgwick and French, and on the 20th the army of the Potomac advanced against Lee; but his position was found to be too strong, and the Federals returned to their previous camps on the Orange and Alexandria Railroad. During

the spring of this year (1863) important events were taking place on the Mississippi. After the fall of Memphis, Vicksburg was the only remaining Confederate stronghold on that river; and several naval and land attacks were made upon this important post, beginning in June, 1862, and extending over a period of more than a year. The first effort to take the place being unsuccessful, an attempt was made to change the course of the Mississippi River by digging a canal, with the design of making Vicksburg an inland town. Various endeavors to reach the rear of the place were made, in one of which General Sherman was repulsed with heavy loss (Dec. 27, 1862). During the following month, with the assistance of Admiral Porter, he captured Arkansas Post, with 5000 prisoners. On the 2d of February, General Grant assumed the command of the army of the Mississippi, which he moved down the west side of the river, while Porter boldly ran by Vicksburg with his fleet and met Farragut coming up. On the 30th of April, Grant recrossed the river at Bruinsburg, and marched inland to the rear of Vicksburg, which place he regularly invested on the 18th of May, after fighting the battles of Port Gibson (May 1), Raymond (May 12), Jackson (May 14), Champion Hills (May 16) and Black River Bridge (May 17). Attempts were made to take the town by assault (May 21 and 22), but the assailants were repulsed with heavy loss, and it was therefore resolved to resort to a regular siege. The approaches and parallels were daily pushed nearer and nearer, the city was exposed to an almost constant bombardment from the army and from the gunboats on the river. The garrison held out as long as possible, in the hope that General Johnston, who was straining every nerve to raise a sufficient army for the purpose, would come to their relief. This hope was vain, as the reinforcements were driven back. Provisions grew scarce; even the flesh of mules began to fail. On the 4th of July, the day after the battle of Gettysburg, General Pemberton surrendered the place with 30,000 prisoners, arms and munitions of war for an army of 60,000 men, together with steamboats, cotton and other property of immense value. During June and July, 1863, a raid was made by General Morgan, a famous Confederate leader, with about 3000 cavalry and six cannon. They crossed the Ohio River into Indiana, and moved rapidly eastward, plundering as they went. Home-troops killed or captured nearly all of this force, and General Morgan, with a remnant of 400 men, surrendered to General Shackleford, in Morgan county, Ohio, on the 26th of July. During this same period, General Rosecrans, by a series of vigorous movements, had driven the Confederates under General Bragg out of Middle Tennessee, and in August the Federals followed them over the Cumberland Mountains, and by a flank movement compelled them to march on in the direction of Georgia. Bragg was afterward reinforced by Longstreet and his corps, from Lee's army, and turned suddenly upon