as the signs of our ideas of things, was purely arbitrary. There is no peculiar fitness in the words, horse, tree, bird, for instance, to denote the objects signified by those words; nor any reason why they should be applied as they are at present, or why they might not still be used indiscriminately one for the other, except that of custom or common cousent. In the English language we use the word, horse, to denote a certain animal, or species of animals; in the French language the word, cheval, and in the Latin the word, equus, denote the same animal.

As an exception, however, to this general rule, it may be remarked, that some words shew an evident adaptation of sounds naturally connected with the ideas, which they signify. Among these we may reckon the nouns cuculus in Latin, and cuckoo in English, evidently intended to imitate the note of the bird, whose name they express. Of the same kind are the words buzz, hiss, hubble-bubble, splash, splutter, &c. In these examples, the "sound seems an echo to the sense.”

Now, our ideas of things are the images, existing in our minds, of those things when we think of them. Thus when we think of a horse, a tree, a bird, we form in our minds an image of a horse, a tree, a bird, and these images are called ideas; and the words, horse, tree bird. are the signs, (either spoken or writ teo,) which we use to express those ideas or images, or to suggest them to the minds of others. But, when a word is used to denote a relation between other words, it is called the sign of a relation; as, in the phrases, "the hair of a horse, the bark of a tree, the feathers of a bird," the word, of, denotes a relation between hair and horse, bark and tree, feathers and bird; and is therefore called the sign of a relation of ideas.

SECTION 2. Of the Alphabet.

Several letters in the English alphabet are either superfluous, or represent, not simple, but complex sounds C, for instance, is superfluous in both its sounds; the one being expressed by k, and the other by s. G, in the soft pro nunciation, is not a simple, but a complex sound; as age is pronounced aidge J is unnecessary, because its sound, and that of the soft g, are in our languag the same. Q, with its attendant u, is either complex, and resolvable into kw, a in quality; or unnecessary, because its sound is the same with k, as in opaque X is compounded of gs, as in example; or of ks, as in expect.

A perfect alphabet of the English language, and, indeed, of every other language, would contain a number of letters, precisely equal to the number o simple articulate sounds belonging to the language. Every simple sound would have its distinct character; and that character be the representative of no othe sound. But this is far from being the state of the English alphabet. It ha more original sounds than distinct significant letters; and, consequently, som of these letters are made to represent, not one sound alone, but several sounds This will appear by reflecting, that the sounds signified by the united letters th sh, ng, are elementary, and have no single appropriate characters, in our al phabet; and that the letters a. andu, represent the different sounds heard in ha hate, hall; and in but, bull, mule.

To explain this subject more fully to the learners, we shall set down th characters made use of to represent all the elementary sounds of our language as nearly in the manner and order of the present English alphabet, as the de sign of the subject will admit; and shall annex to each character the syllabl or word. which contains its proper and distinct sound. And here it will b proper to begin with the vowels.

By this list it appears, that there are in the English language fourteen simple vowel sounds; but as i and u, when pronounced long, may be considered as diphthongs, or diphthongal vowels, our language, strictly speaking, contains but twelve simple vowel sounds; to represent which, we have only five distinct characters or letters. If a in arm, is the same specific sound as a in at ; and u in bull, the same as o in move, which is the opiniou of some grammarians; then there are but ten original vowel sounds in the English language.

Some grammarians subdivide vowels into the simple and the compound. But there does not appear to be any foundation for the distinction. Simplicity is essential to the nature of a vowel, which excludes every degree of mixed or compound sounds. It requires, according to the definition, but one conformation of the organs of speech, to form it, and no motion in the organs, whilst it is forming.

It is generally acknowledged by the best grammarians, that w and y are consonants when they begin a syllable or word, and vowels when they end one. That they are consonants, when used as initials, seems to be evident from their not admitting the article an before them, as it would be improper to say an walnut, an yard, &c. and from their following a vowel without any hiatus or diffi culty of utterance; as, frosty winter, rosy youth. That they are vowels iu other situations, appears from their regularly taking the sound of other vowels; as, w, has the exact sound of u in saw, few, now, &c. and y that of i in hymn, fly, crystal, &c.

We present the following as a more exact and philosophical definition of a Vowel, than that given in the General View.

A vowel is a simple, articulate sound, perfect in itself, and formed by a continued effusion of the breath, and a certain conformation of the mouth, without any alteration in the position, or any motion of the organs of speech, from the moment the vocal sound commences, till it ends.

CONSONANTS.

In considering the sounds of the first principles of language, we find that some are so simple and unmixed, that there is nothing required but the opening of the mouth to make them understood, and to form different sounds. Whence they have the names of vowels, or voices, or vocal sounds. On the contrary, we find that there are others, whose pronunciation depends on the particular appli

cation and use of every part of the mouth, as the teeth, the lips, the tongue, the palate &c. which yet cannot make any one perfect sound but by their union with those vocal sounds; and these are called consonants, or letters sounding with other letters.

The following list denotes the sounds of the consonants, being in number twenty-two.

Letters denoting the

simple sounds.
b

Words containing the

simple sounds.

as heard in

bal, tub.

dog, sod.
for, off.

van, love.
go egg.

hop, ho.
kili, oak.
lop. Toil.

my, mum.
nod, nun.

pin, pup.

rap, tar.

so, lass.
zed, buzz.

top, mat.
wo, will.
ye, yes.
kin, sing,
shy, ash.

thin, thick.
then, hem.
pleasure.

We have shown, that it is essential to the nature of a consonant, that it cannot be fully uttered without the aid of a vowel. We may further observe, that even the names of the consonauts, as they are pronounced in reciting the alphabet require the help of vowels to express them. In pronouncing the names of the mutes, the assistaut vowels follow the consonants; as, he pe, te de. ka. In pronouncing the names of the semi-vowels the vowels generally precede the consouanis; as, ef, el, em, en, ar, es, ex. The exceptions are, ce, ge, ve, zee.

This distinction, between the nature and the name of a consonant, is of great importance, and should be well explained to the pupil. They are frequently confounded by writers on grammar. Observations and reasonings, on the name, are often applied to explain the nature of a consonant; and, by this means, the student is led into error and perplexity, respecting these elements of language. It should be impressed on his mind, that the name of every consonant is a com plex sound; but that the consonant itself is always a simple sound.

From the preceding representation, it appears to be a point of considerable impo.tance, that every learner of the English language should be taught to pro nounce perfectly. and with facility, every original simple sound that belongs to it. By a timely and judicious care in this respect, the voice will be prepared to utter, with ease and accuracy, every combination of sounds; and taught to avoid that confused and imperfect manner of pronouncing words, which accom panies, through life, many persons, who have not, in this respect, been properly instructed at an early period.

* Some grammarians suppose h to mark only an aspiration, or breathing; but it appears to be a distinct sound, and formed in a particular manner, by the organs of speech. Encyclopædia Britannica.

The following is offered as a more exact and philosophical definition of a consonant, than that given in the General View.

A Consonant is a simple articulate sound, imperfect by itself, but which, joined with a vowel forms a complete sound, by a particular motion or contact of the organs of speech.

DIPHTHONGS.

Each of the diphthongal letters was, doubtless, originally heard in pronouncing the words which contain them. Though this is not the case at present, with respect to many of them, these combinations still retain the name of diph thongs; but, to distinguish them, they are marked by the term improper. As the diphthong derives its name and nature from its sound, and not from its letters, and properly denotes a double vowel sound, no union of two vowels, where one is silent can, in strictness, be entitled to that appellation; and the single letters, 2 and u when pronounced long, must, in this view, be considered as diphthongs. The triphthongs, having at most two sounds, are merely ocular, and are, therefore, by some grammarians classed with the diphthongs.

LECTURE II.

General observations on the sounds of the letters.

A

A has four sounds; the long or slender, the broad, the short or open, and the middle.

The long; as in name, basin, creation.

The broad; as in call. wall, all.

The short; as in barrel, faucy, glass.
The middle; as in far, farm, father.

The diphthong, aa. generally sounds like a short in proper names; as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac; but not in Baal, Gaal.

Ae has the sound of long e. It is sometimes found in Latin words. Some authors retain this form; as, ænigma, æquator, &c. bu others have laid it aside, and write enigma, Cesar, Eneas, &c.

The diph hong, ai, has exactly the long slender sound of a, as in pail, tail, &c. pronounced pale, tale, &c.—except plaid, again, railiery, fountain, Britain, and a few others.

Au is generally sounded like the broad a; as in taugh', caught, &c. Sometimes like the short or open a ; as in aunt, flaunt, gaunt et, &c. It has the sound of long o in hautboy; and that of o short in laurel, laudanum, &c.

Aw has always the sound of broad a ; »s in bawl, scrawl, crawl.

Ay, like its near relation, ai, is pronounced like the long slender sound of a; as in pay, day, delay.

B

B keeps one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle, and end of words; as in baker, number, rhubarb. &c.

In some words it is silent; as in thumb, debtor, subtle, &c. In others, besides being silent, it lengthens the syllable; as in climb, comb, tomb.

C has two different sounds.

C

A hard sound like k, before a, o, u, r, l. t ; as, in cart, cottage, curious, craft, tract cloth, &c.; and when it ends a syilable; as, in victim, flaccid.

A sof sound like s before e, i, and y generally; as in centre, face, civil, eymbal, mercy, &c. It has sometimes the sound of sh; as in ocean, social.

C is mute in czar, czarina, victuals, &c.

C, says Dr. Johnson, according to English orthography, never ends a word; and therefore we find in our best dictionaries, stick, block, publick, politick, &c. But many writers of latter years omit the k in words of two or more syllables; and this practice is gaining ground, though it is productive of irregularities ; such as writing mimic and mimickry; traffic and trafficking.

Ch is commonly sounded like tch; as in church, chio, chaff, charter ; but in words derived from the Greek has the sound of k; as in chymist, scheme, chorus, chyle, distich; and in foreign names; as, Achish, Baruch, Enoch, &c.

Ch, in some words derived from the French, takes the sound of sh ; as in chaise, chagrin, chevalier, machine.

Ch in arch, before a vowel, sounds like k; as in arch angel, archives, Archipelago; except in arched, archery, archer, and arch-enemy;- but before a consonant it always sounds like tch; as in archbishop, archduke, archpresbyter, &c. Ch, is silent in schedule, schism, and yacht.

D.

D keeps one uniform sound, at the beginning, middle, and end of words; as in death, bandage, kindred; unless it may be said to take the sound of t, in stuffed, tripped, &c. as, stuft, tript, &c.

E has three different sounds.

E.

A long sound; as in scheme, glebe, severe, pulley.

A short sound; as in men, bed, clemency.

An obscure and scarcely perceptible sound; as, open, lucre, participle.

It has sometimes the sound of middle a; as in clerk, serjeant; and sometimes that of short i; as in England, yes, pretty.

E is always mute at the end of a word, except in monosyllables that have no other vowel; as, me, he, she, ;—or in substantives derived from the Greek; as, catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. It is used to soften and modify the foregoing consonants; as, force, rage, since, oblige ;—or to lengthen the preceding vowel; as, can, cane; pin, pine; rob, robe.

The diphthong ea is generally sounded like e long; as in appear, beaver, creature, &c. It has also the sound of short e; as in breath, meadow, treasure. And it is sometimes pronounced like the long and slender a; as in bear, break, great.

Eau has the sound of long o; as in beau, flambeau, portmanteau. In beauty and its compounds, it has the sound of long u.

Ei, in general, sounds the same as long and slender a; as in deiga, vein, neighbour, &c. It has the sound of long e in seize, deceit, receive, either, nei. ther, &c. It is sometimes pronounced like short i; as in foreign, forfeit, sovereign, &c.

Eo is pronounced like e long; as in people; and sometimes like e short; as in leopard, jeopardy. It has also the sound of short u; as io dungeon, sturgeon, puncheon, &c.

Eu is always sounded like long u or ew; as in feud, deuce.

En is almost always pronounced like long u; as in few, new, dew.

Ey, when the accent is on it, is always pronounced like a long; as in bey, grey, convey; except in key, ley, where it is sounded like long e.

When this diphthong is unaccented, it takes the sound of e long; as, alley, valley, barley.

F

F keeps one pure unvaried scund at the beginning, middle, and end of words; as, fancy, muffin, mischief, &c.; except in of, in which it has the flat sound of