not escape observation that almost in every particular considered there has been marked increase during the periods covered by the comparison. Along with the progress in these measurable quantities there has been also a remarkable development in the ideal of scholastic work. This has always been determined chiefly by the conditions for obtaining the annual parliamentary grant. These conditions are formulated each year by the department in the so-called "code," or body of regulations, which must be sanctioned by Parliament before it can be adopted. The radical changes that have been introduced into these documents from time to time are the indexes of the most important changes that have been effected in the schools.

For the purpose of making these changes intelligible a historical survey of the earlier codes is here presented. It is taken substantially from the introduction to the School Board Chronicle edition of the code of 1891. The survey is carried back to a period antedating the law of 1870. It will be remembered that the Government began making grants to elementary schools as early as 1833. In 1860 the various "minutes" which had been issued for the guidance of the committee of council in charge of this fund were consolidated, and with this digest as a starting point the document known as "the revised code" of 1861 was issued to regulate the future distribution of the grants. Under this code the grant was made to depend chiefly on the average attendance and the results of the individual examination of the scholars in reading, writing, and arithmetic. The effects of this code are thus summarized by our authority:

The inevitable result followed that the teachers were compelled to confine their attention to these elementary subjects, while others, such as history, grammar, geography, mathematics, which in the hands of a capable teacher foster mental activity and create a thirst for knowledge in the scholar, were starved out; and this serious result was not counterbalanced by the fact that the new system of individual examination enabled the inspector "to report with all but absolute certainty upon, at all events, the attainments required, and to apply praise or blame with an amount of firmness and decision which under the former code he was able to do." Perhaps the effect of the revised code could hardly be better summed up than in the language of Mr. J. G. Fitch, one of Her Majesty's inspectors of schools. In one of his reports he says:

"I can not resist the unwelcome conviction that the new code (1861) is tending to formalize the work of the elementary schools and to render it in some degree lifeless, inelastic, and mechanical. I find too many teachers disposed to narrow their sense of duty to the 'six standards,' or to what they sometimes call, with unconscious sarcasm, the 'paying subjects.' I find an increasing eagerness on the part of teachers to get hold of text-books which are 'specially adapted to the requirements of the revised code,' and which claim, as their chief merit, that they do not go a step beyond those requirements. The practice of explaining and questioning on the meanings of words appears to me on the decline. Spirited oral teaching, mutual interrogation, home lessons, and other devices by which the intellectual life of a school is kept up are far less common than they ought to be, and, as I have reason to believe, than they once were. The teaching of grammar, history, and geography has been much discouraged. It has always been a characteristic of the best schools

that in each of them there was some one subject which, if not a hobby of the master's, was yet one in which his own tastes led him to take particular interest, and which by its special finish and excellence served to prove that his heart was in his school and that he was proud of its success. I regret to say that I see comparatively little of this sort of enthusiasm, and that the adoption of a uniform standard tends in some measure to discourage it."

The late Mr. Matthew Arnold's condemnation of the system under the revised code was, if anything, stronger than that of Mr. Fitch. In his report on education in Germany, France, Italy, and Switzerland, he wrote:

"The fault of the teaching in our popular schools at home is that it is so little formative; it does little to touch their nature for good and to mold them. Again and again I find written in my notes, 'The children human.' They had been brought under teaching of a quality to touch and interest them, and were being formed by it."

Passing to conditions under the law of 1870, the writer continues: When the education act of 1870 was passed a pledge was given that the amount of the annual grants previously available for the support of elementary schools should be increased. A new code was accordingly framed in 1871 with special reference to the alterations required by that act. The principle of payment by results was still maintained, but a more liberal view was taken, both of the subjects which might be taught and the amounts to be earned. The schedule of specific subjects for which grants were allowed included geography, history, grammar, algebra, geometry, natural philosophy, physical geography, the natural sciences, political economy, and languages.

With slight modifications the code of 1871 remained in force until it was superseded by the code of 1882.

This code, generally known by the name of its author, Mr. Mundella, at that time vice-president of the education department, made the first break in the mechanical system that had grown out of the "revised code." Individual examination in the elementary subjects was still maintained; for these alone a teacher could secure from the grant rates varying from 13s. to 16s. per capita of the children who passed. Liberal grants were offered also for attainments in the higher subjects. The most important feature introduced by the new regulations was the "merit grant." This was to be awarded at rates varying from 1s. to 3s. per capita of average attendance, according to the report of the inspector as to the general conditions of the school-i. e., whether excellent, good, or fair. Inspectors were instructed in making up the report to consider the special difficulties of the teachers, the general intelligence of the district, etc.

The spirit of the new regulations was progressive, but in actual practice they accomplished less than was expected. Even the merit grant proved to be a means of increasing mechanical teaching, and was a special subject of complaint before the commission of 1886 appointed to inquire into the workings of the elementary school laws. An outcome of the recommendations of this commission was the code of 1890. In this, for the first time, there was a radical departure from the system of "payment upon results." It allowed the larger proportion of

the grant to be paid at a fixed ratio upon the basis of average attendance. Moreover, the individual examination of all pupils was no longer demanded; instead, the inspector might examine the class in general or a few pupils, according to his judgment. The law of 1891 providing for the remission of school fees gave rise to some special regulations. which were embodied in the code for 1892, but these were not in line with the movement here discussed.

The last measures in the series that have emancipated the schools from a deadening routine are embodied in the regulations just issued for the year 1895. The most important of these has reference to the inspection of schools. Heretofore the inspectors have made a rigid annual examination of every school on the Government list. From this ordeal schools that have reached a certain standard are now excused; in place of the formal examination there may be substituted two annual visits from the inspector, the visits to be made without notice. On these occasions the inspector is to test the instruction and the general condition of the school, and from the notes taken at the time to make up his report of the school. If the report is satisfactory the school will be entitled to the full grant. Thus virtually ends the system of "payment upon results."

The regulations have also reduced the work required in the lower grades, introduced a special schedule for small schools (i. e., those with an average attendance below 60), and have placed cottage gardening as a subject of instruction for boys on the same basis as cookery, laundry, and dairy work for girls. Another provision which shows the tendency toward freer methods of instruction is that allowing the time spent by pupils during school hours in visiting museums, art galleries, etc., to be counted as school attendance. It is stipulated that the visits shall be made under proper guidance.

EVENING SCHOOLS.

The measures adopted for the development of evening schools show the same progressive spirit as those that are gradually transforming the day schools. The present ideal of evening schools is indicated by the new name applied to them, i. e., "Evening continuation schools." Prior to the regulations of 1893 they were essentially elementary schools, conducted like the day schools upon a rigid system of payment for results. The spirit of the new regulations and the conditions

'Prior to 1890 the grant comprised four divisions in "schools for older scholars," as follows: (1) A fixed grant of 4s. to 6s. per pupil. (2) A merit grant varying from 1s. to 3s. per pupil, according to the inspector's report. (3) A grant for the three elementary subjects of instruction according to the number of pupils passing a satis factory examination in each. (4) Various grants in class and specific subjects. The code of 1890 raised No. 1 from 4s. to 6s. to 123s. to 11s., made No. 2 a definite grant of 1s. to 1s. for good discipline and organization, and abolished No. 3.

which have made them necessary are thus clearly summarized in the London Journal of Education (July 1, 1893):

Mr. Acland's evening school code has not disappointed the hopes of those who expected bold and useful reforms. For the first time we are to have real continuation schools, and yet the new vice-president has had the advantage of the criticisms bestowed on the abortive attempt in the same direction of his predecessor. Individual examination is abolished and inspection without notice substituted; no scholar will henceforth be compelled to take the elementary subjects; adults may be freely admitted, and will earn grants; a variety of practical and recreative subjects have been recognized. The principle of the minute of 1892 is adopted in the apportionment of the variable grants, viz, that they shall depend on the number of hours' instruction given in each subject, and this is extended to the fixed grant, payment by average attendance being superseded.

These are daring changes, but some of them had been long advocated by educationalists. The cautious relaxation in 1890 of the old trammels had produced an immediate increase in the night schools, but the tradition that evening schools were for the three R's was still too strong, and the increase has not been maintained. After our heavy expenditure on day school children, we have allowed them to forget everything from the moment they have reached a standard where intelligence is beginning to be evoked. After a year or two at work, the ordinary London boy can not sum, his writing is atrocious, his grammar worse, his reading merely sufficient for comic cuts.

Let us glance at the figures for London day and night schools. Taking the compulsory period, and assuming the children are in the day schools for eight years, i. e. from 5 to 13, the average number between those ages on the rolls for the last eight years is about 575,000. Last year there were enrolled in the evening schools 30,000 boys and girls between 13 and 21. True, many of the 575,000 have died after leaving school, and there would be slight compensation by immigration, but one would suppose there would be now over 500,000 young people between 13 and 21 in London. The proportion in day continuation schools is, unhappily, very small. Further, of the 30,000 enrolled in the evening schools, an average of 10,000 only attended during the two winter sessions, and only half that number in the summer. The immense majority of our working lads and lassies are not carrying on their education at all during these valuable years.

Mr. Acland wishes to have interesting schools to attract them and thorough teaching when they have come in. The most important of his new provisions is doubtless the abolition of the formal examination and payment by individual passes. For years we have been crying out against the cram to which teachers and pupils resorted before the examination—a cram which was distasteful and useless. We are now to have an inspection of methods of teaching of general knowledge and intelligence. To prevent a slackness of work the inspector will reduce the variable grant from 1s. 6d. to 1s. if both the actual teaching and its method are not thoroughly satisfactory.

The fixed grant ought to be larger when paid, as is proposed, on each complete twelve hours of instruction, as it will enable us to disregard a falling off in numbers, and to continue to teach the earnest pupils whom we have previously sacrified to the necessity of keeping a high average attendance.

The explanatory memorandum also suggests that meetings can be lengthened, but after a day's work it is unwise to exact too long a time for instruction. We must not omit to note that, under article 11, a limit of grant is fixed on the basis of average attendance; but we hope the department has calculated that this will not nullify the change and prevent our opening more frequently for special subjects, and allowing pupils to attend only some of these.

Vice-president of the education department.
Issued by the education department.

For the fixed grant time is recognized, though spent over subjects for which no variable grant can be given-e. g., drawing, manual training, physical exercises, and housewifery. It is evident from the exordium and from the fifth article (which provides that these may be given on other premises if necessary) that it is desired to encourage these.

The following citations from the code and appendixes give in outline the programme for the evening schools, also the expanded programme in English subjects, and in detail the section pertaining to civic instruction. To this is added the explanatory memorandum in which the purposes of the Government in respect to these schools are more fully expressed.

It should be added that corresponding changes have been made in the regulations for evening schools in Scotland.

EVENING CONTINUATION SCHOOL CODE, 1893.

2. Grants may be made for any of the subjects of instruction named in the schedule to this code, and for any other subjects sanctioned by the department, provided that a graduated scheme for teaching any such subject be submitted to and approved by the inspector.

The subjects named in the schedule are the following:

Elementary subjects.-Reading or recitation, or both combined; writing and composition; reading and writing combined; arithmetic.

English subjects.-English, geography, history, the life and duties of the citizen. Languages.-French, German, Welsh (for scholars in schools in Wales), Latin. Mathematics.-Euclid, algebra, mensuration.

Science subjects and subjects of practical utility.-Elementary physiography, elementary physics and chemistry, science of common things, chemistry, mechanics, sound, light, and heat, magnetism and electricity, human physiology, botany, agriculture, horticulture, navigation, bookkeeping, shorthand.

Vocal music.-Subjects for girls and women only.-Domestic economy, needlework. Schemes for teaching these subjects are given in the schedule.

Grants are also made for cookery, laundry work, and dairy work as subjects of instruction for girls and women.

3. Instruction may be given in other secular subjects and in religions subjects, but no grant is made in respect of any such instruction. (Elementary education act, 1870, sec. 97, 1.)

4. Instruction in the following subjects is recognized for the purpose of the fixed grant (art. 13 a), but no variable grant (art. 13 b) is paid in respect of them:

Drawing. (Grants for drawing are made by the science and art department.)
Manual or technical instruction.

Suitable physical exercises.

Military drill (for boys and men).

Housewifery (for girls and women).

5. Instruction in the subjects mentioned in article 4, and also instruction in the following subjects mentioned in article 2: Science, vocal music, cookery, laundry work, dairy work, or needlework (for girls and women) may be given elsewhere than on the school premises, provided that special and appropriate provision, approved by the inspector, is made for such instruction, and the times for giving it are entered in the approved time-table. Except as provided by this article, all instruction must be given on the school premises.

6. No meeting of the school is reckoned at which less than one hour's secular instruction has been given.