Among the more modern Jewish writers, Josephus holds the first place. He was born in Jerusalem, A. D. 37, and was present when that city was taken by the Romans under Vespasian. Having surrendered himself to the conqueror, he gained his esteem and favor by flattering his vanity, and foretelling that he would one day become master of the Roman empire. After the siege of Jerusalem by Titus, he accompanied that conqueror to Rome, where he was admitted to the privileges of a Roman citizen. During his residence there, he employed his time in study, and in collecting and arranging the materials for his celebrated works, "The wars of the Jews" and the "Antiquities of the Jews." These works were composed during the reign of Titus, whose favor and patronage Josephus enjoyed. The "Wars of the Jews" was originally written in Syriac, and afterwards translated into Greek; the "Antiquities" was written in Greek. Besides these works, he wrote some others of minor celebrity. His works are much esteemed as a valuable record of historical facts, so far as his own nation is immediately concerned; but when he speaks of Jesus Christ, and the great and interesting events of his life, he writes with all the prejudices of a Jew, and misapplies some of the most prominent and striking prophecies.

The Midraschim, is a work of great antiquity and of high authority. This work, as the name imports, consists of commentaries upon the scriptures. The Misna, or Mishna, contains the oral law delivered by Moses, first to Aaron and his sons, and then to the seven elders. The Jews believe, that when God gave the written law to Moses, he gave them also another not written, which was preserved among the doctors of the synagogue, until the year A. D. 180, when Judas the Holy, a learned Rabbin, and a chief of the Jews, apprehensive lest the tra ditions and rites of their fathers might be forgot, in consequence of their dispersion throughout many provinces and countries, thought it better to reduce them to writing, than to trust to their memories. Thus the Mishna was compiled, and was received with profound veneration by the Jews, and their learned men made it their principal study. This work is divided into six parts, and contains the whole of their oral laws, and treats of their obligations, sacrifices, and whatever relates thereto. Judas the Holy, the compiler of the Mishna, was the chief of those

doctors or learned men, called Tanaites, or preservers of the tradition, whom they believed enjoyed the peculiar favor of God.

The Talmud of Jerusalem, and the Talmud of Babylon, are both important works, and esteemed of high authority. The Talmud contains the body of the doctrine, religion and morality of the Jews. That of Jerusalem was compiled about 300 years after Christ, by the Rabbi Johanan, and is composed of the Mishna, and the Gemara, a commentary upon the Mishna, by Johanna; that of Babylon is composed of the Mishna, and the commentary of Rabbi Asa, who lived at Babylon about 400 years after Christ. The latter was compiled, because that of Jerusalem was considered imperfect, as containing only the opinions of a few of the Rabbins of Jerusalem. The Talmud of Babylon is generally preferred by the Jews to that of Jerusalem, because it is more extensive. Notwithstanding it abounds with miraculous stories, its authority is even preferred by some to that of the scriptures. They believe the traditions contained therein, are derived from God himself, that Moses revealed them to Aaron, to the sons of Aaron, and to the elders of Israel, and that they passed down until they came to the doctors, who reduced them to the form of the Mishna and the Gemara.

The Targum, is the Chaldee paraphrase of the written law, as the Talmud is of the oral. It received its origin from the captive Jews of Babylon, whose knowledge of the Hebrew had become so imperfect, that when the Hebrew text was read in the synagogues, Ezra and the other priests, added an explanation or commentary in Chaldee, for the advantage of the people. The explanations and commentaries thus given by Ezra and his successors, were not committed to writing until the time of Onkelos and Jonathan, who lived about the time of our Saviour. They both composed paraphrases; that of Onkelos is on the books of Moses, and is most esteemed; that of Jonathan, is on the greater and lesser prophets; his style is diffuse, and he often takes great liberties, particularly with the lesser prophets. The parentage of Onkelos is uncertain; by some he is supposed to be a Gentile, who was converted to Judaism; by others, that he was the son of the emperor Titus, and by others, that he was his nephew. His Targum, or paraphrase of the Pentateuch, has always been greatly esteemed by the Jews, and in many copies

of the scripture it was inserted after the original text; the same musical notes were put to it, that it might be read with a kind of chanting at the same time with the original, and to the same tune.* There are several other works of ancient Jews, whose writings were much esteemed, and whose opinions were received with great respect.

Among the ancient nations of the east, the Chaldeans enjoyed a high reputation for learning, and have divided with the Egyp tians the honor of originating certain arts and sciences, which modern learning and ingenuity have improved and applied to many useful practical purposes. That they cultivated learning to some extent, at a very early period, is acknowledged on all hands; but it was exclusively confined to the Chaldean, as it was to the Egyptian, priesthood. The public at large received no benefit from the knowledge they possessed, which was rather employed in riveting the chains of superstition, than in enlightening the mind. Their peculiar doctrines were concealed from the profane and uninitiated by means of hieroglyphics, and were only taught to those who were designed for the priesthood. The priests instructed the people in the principles of religion and conducted its ceremonies; they interpreted the laws of the kingdom; they pretended to predict future events by divination; to explain prodigies and interpret dreams, and to avert evils or confer benefits, by means of augury and incantations. Astrology was held in such estimation among them, that a distinct order of men was appointed to make observations upon the heavenly bodies; hence, the appellations of Chaldean and astrologer became, afterwards, synonymous terms. The peculiar principles of their religion or philosophy, the Chaldeans are supposed to have received from a philosopher called Zoroaster, a different person, however, from the Persian Zoroaster, but equally renowned as one of the benefactors of the human race. They believed in a God or Supreme Being, the fountain of intelligence by whose providence and care the world is governed, and also in several inferior and subordinate gods, who assisted in the government of human affairs. These gods consisted of the sun, moon, planets and stars, and to them religious homage was of fered. The Chaldean priests, like the Egyptian, are supposed to have taught in the retirement of their temples a more subCalmet's Dict.; Brown's Ant. of the Jews.

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lime and rational system of religion, than that taught to the ple. Of the writings of the Chaldean sages and philosophers, we can form no opinion, as none remain to satisfy the inquiring mind.

India lays claim to high antiquity as well on the score of learning and philosophy, as to existance as a nation. It is difficult to ascertain at what period the most ancient philosophers and learned men of India flourished, but it is well known that in the most remote times of which we have any knowledge, there existed in that country a race of men, distinguished by the name of Gymnosophists, with whom the present system of Hindoo religion and worship originated. They were divided into sects, tribes or castes, the principal of which was that of the Brahmins, still the chief caste among the Hindoos. These wise men not only distinguished themselves for the cultivation of science, but were remarkable for their rigid abstinence, their contempt of the pleasures of the world, and their uniform austerity of manner. This austerity and contempt for the pleasures of life, and their frequent conversations on divine things, gave a sort of sanctity to their character, and obtained for them an unbounded influence over the people who are accustomed to regard sanctity of character with peculiar reverence. Like the philosophers of whom we have already spoken, they took great pains to conceal their learning and the mysteries of their religion, from the common people, and for the same reason-that they might preserve the influence they had obtained. The Hindoo system of religion. and morality is contained in their sacred books, which denounced the heaviest penalties on whoever should reveal their contents to the uninitiated, and it was not until a recent period that any portion of them was translated, and any part of their hidden mysteries revealed. For the interesting information we possess on that subject we are indebted to the exertions of Sir William Jones, who in his zeal to inquire into the secrets of oriental literature, found means to unlock the treasure. The admirers of Hindoo literature assert, that their learned men yielded the palm of learning to scarcely any other of the ancients, and that the more their philosophical works and law books are studied, the more the inquirer will be convinced of the depth of wisdom possessed by authors, many of whom flourished one thousand years before the birth of Christ, according to Hindoo chronology.

The sacred writings of the Hindoos, which they attribute to the gods, are contained in the four vedus. Each vedu consists of two parts, called the munturs and the bramhunus, or prayers and hymns. The complete collection of the hymns, prayers, and invocations belonging to one vedu, is entitled its sunghita. Every other portion of Indian scripture is included under the general head of bramunu. This comprises precepts, which include the religious duties; maxims which explain those precepts; and arguments which relate to theology.

The Hindoos have a great number of law books extant, which embrace a great variety of subjects that would naturally suggest themselves to wise legislators in drawing up a code for the regulation of civil society. But, as their legislators usually united the threefold character of philosopher, priest and lawgiver, their civil and criminal laws were not entirely separated from those concerning religious duties and ceremonies. Many of their laws appear to have been dictated by true wisdom, and a proper regard to the rights of individuals, whilst others are partial and unjust—thus, "If a man deprive another of life, he shall suffer death; but if a brahmin do this he shall be fined." Offences against the brahmins are punished with the utmost severity.

The ancient Hindoos possessed considerable knowledge of various sciences-of their knowledge of astronomy there are still remaining some curious monuments. The works still extant which treat of this science are said to be about sixty, and although they contain many absurdities and extravagant fancies, they manifest high intellectual powers, and much inquiry and observation. They give the circumference and diameter of the earth, which, according to their mode of computation, greatly exceeds the measurement of the astronomers of the present day -they describe the causes of the eclipse of the sun and moontheir appearance during an eclipse-the times of the rising and setting of the planets, and the periods when different planets are in conjunction, and many other particulars of the heavenly bodies.

The Hindoos cultivated poetry as a pleasing relaxation from severer studies, and their philosophers laying aside their grave discussions, laid down certain rules for poetic composition, and reduced it to a system. Like that of other eastern nations, their