ion, and to which we are indebted for terms designating different varieties of drawing, as instrumental drawing, point drawing, crayon drawing, stump drawing, charcoal drawing. For the purposes of advanced technical education, the hand ought to be accustomed to the use of different materials. Change of material does not necessarily involve change of work; for whatever materials may be used, the student must work according to certain broad, underlying principles, found, when properly sought, in one or other of the great departments of drawing which have been described, and are, in brief, as follows:

1. Drawing two dimensions. Freehand and instrumental. For decoration, for designing the forms of many objects, and for mechanical purposes. 2. Drawing the three dimensions from the solid or round. Effects of chiaroscuro. Freehand. For both artists and artisans, but especially for the former.

3. Drawing the three dimensions, with perspective effects, of objects to be constructed. Instrumental. Not to be confounded with drawing from the solid. For both artistic and mechanical purposes, but especially for the latter.

4. Drawing the three dimensions of objects to be constructed; no chiaroscuro, but orthographic representation to a scale. Instrumental. For artisans.

And so it may very properly be said of drawing, that it rests on a broad basis of definite principles, and that its applications are infinite. It is the universal language of form. The foreigner who understands this language can, upon entering any first-class American workshop, go at once intelligently about his work, while an American ignorant of it would have to be directed at every step. This language, of such vast scope, is not to be learned in a day. No mere trick, no mere device or universal patent recipe can put one in possession of this hundred-handed instrument of art and industry. Therefore beware of drawing-quacks.

If we examine the curriculum of any good school for advanced technical instruction, we find that drawing occupies a large space. This is for the civil engineer, for the architect, for the shipbuilder, for the machine draughtsman, for the designer of manufactures, for the decorator, for the founder, for the miner, for the farmer, for almost every human industry. Some industries require more, others less of drawing; and it goes without saying that each industry must have its special requirements, though there are certain things that belong to them all in common. In the best technical schools there is no haste to reduce the instruction to a rigid specialty in the case of any student. When workmen are to be instructed, the course must be somewhat different.

Experience has shown that he succeeds best in any particular kind of drawing who has been instructed in all kinds. Thus the knowledge of the architect, for example, should not be limited to the requirements of construction; he should know how to decorate; he should be able to give his perspective drawings an agreeable background of sky and earth, with animal and human figures. The designer for pottery or textile fabrics will do his own work better, when his knowledge of the art of design is comprehensive enough to make him intelligent in furniture and the groupings of figures in a picture. But it is not necessary to enlarge on this point.

As drawing, like everything else, has its elements which can be learned in childhood and early youth, these elements should not cumber the curriculum of the technical or advanced industrial schools, but, like those of arithmetic and grammar, should be made a requisite for admission to the technical schools. Were such the case, there would be saved certainly one year of the time which the student is now obliged to spend in a good technical school. The course could be shortened by that much, or, better yet, the standard of instruction could be raised.

When the public schools do their duty by drawing, this advance on the part of the technical schools can be readily made; for then their students will come to them well-grounded in all the elements of drawing. They will have their eyes trained to quick and accurate perception, and their hands to quick and accurate execution with or without instruments.They will possess no mean knowledge of the true nature of design and decoration. With the universal principles to be observed, when one represents objects in chiaroscuro, they will be familiar; and also with those general principles and methods of representing the three dimensions orthographically which are employed in every variety of mechanical construction. From all this there will come, in addition to the definite knowledge and manual skill, much culture of the taste, imagination, and inventive faculties. It should be remembered that drawing is more a matter of knowledge than of mere dexterity, and that an exhibition of drawings is to be judged more by the knowledge it displays than by fineness of execution.

General culture and general utility afford ample justification for teaching in the public schools all that has just been enumerated. This forms the soil from which technical instruction springs, but is not technical instruction itself, as it does not embrace specific applications in the different industries. It is for common service; and as the pupils in the public schools study language in some form, and mathematics in some form, from the beginning to the end of their course, so should they, in the same continuous manner, study drawing and art. That this may be done, without diminishing the proficiency of the learner in the old school studies, has been abundantly proved by experience.

As to the details of a suitable course of instruction in drawing, either for public schools or technical schools, nothing will be said here. Those who wish to know these details should visit and study the Centennial Exposition. Nearly all the products there shown illustrate, in one way or another, the practical applications of drawing. Let these products be studied until one realizes how much a knowledge of drawing must have contributed to the result. Then let the educational curriculums shown in the Exposition be carefully examined. Finally, let the products and the curriculums be compared. This curriculum provides for such instruction in drawing. Is it sufficient to yield the products displayed in the Exposition? No. Then it is not sufficient for public and technical schools, since it is not a measure of the Exposition. But another curriculum provides for such instruction in drawing. This is equal to the requirements of the Exposition, is a measure of the Exposition, and so is equal to the requirements of the school. Nothing less will fill the bill.

A study of the Exposition will show that Russia probably exhibits a better system of technical instruction than does any other country. She has not yet results sufficient to illustrate it. But the system is a full measure of the Exposition. The exhibit made by Massachusetts, of work actually done in her public and technical schools, is unequaled by any other exhibit. For every feature of the Exposition, industrial or purely æsthetic, her educational display shows a corresponding feature. Especially does she deserve the palm for what she has achieved in the way of drawing in her public schools, during the last four years. And let it be observed that what she has done, not only for drawing, but for music also, in the public schools, has not been at the expense of other branches, as the results show. The educational exhibits made by Sweden, Belgium, the Normal Art School of South Kensington, by Switzerland, Holland, and some others, will well repay him who is in search of light on the subject of technical or advanced industrial instruction.

Materials, as well as plans and results, should be carefully examined. Much the most extensive and meritorious display of materials for instruction in drawing is made by L. Prang & Co., of Boston. They exhibit materials for all grades of pupils, from the lowest primary to normal art and technical schools. These materials consist of flat copies, manuals, models, casts, etc., to be drawn in line, in light and shade, and in colors, and all systematically graded. European governments regard good drawing materials of so great consequence that they make it a part of their official business to see that the very best are provided for the use of schools. But such a thing cannot be in this country. How fortunate, therefore, are we, in finding a business house, like that of Prang & Co., with sufficient means, enterprise, and intelligence to provide for American schools drawing materials so excellent as to command the approval of European experts.

The necessity of drawing as an element of advanced industrial education has now been described in general terms; and a sketch has been given of the leading features by which all sound instruction in drawing must be characterized. This instruction should begin in the public schools, with those elements which are of universal utility, and be completed in technical schools, with those special applications required by the different industries. When drawing receives, as it must ere long, its due consideration in this country, it will work a great and beneficial revolution,―much greater than appears upon the surface,-in public instruction and in the condition of labor.

Following the paper of Mr. Stetson Prof. S. EDWARD WARREN, formerly of Troy Polytechnic Institute, made some remarks which are embodied in the following from his hand:

REQUIRED ADJUSTMENTS IN SCIENTIFIC EDUCATION, WITH ESPECIAL REFERENCE TO INSTRUMENTAL DRAWING

AS ONE OF ITS ELEMENTS.

By means of the uniformity of educational nomenclature, which is not the least of many good things which may be most quickly and permanently established by means of a central Bureau of Education, the successive grades, comprehensively designated as Elementary, Secondary, Superior, and Professional Education, are getting to be more and more generally and intelligently recognized.

Elementary education, with sub-divisions not necessary to mention here, is that given in all schools preceding High Schools and Academies. Secondary education is that found in the latter institutions, and in those styled preparatory.

Superior education is that afforded by Colleges and Universities. Here we distinguish the College as having a wholly or nearly prescribed course, and the University as an institution where any subject chosen by the student can be pursued to any desired extent. Moreover, in colleges and universities, as thus defined, knowledge is sought for its own sake, that is with but indirect if any reference to economic ends.

Professional education is that which fits one for the practice of a calling, and is either rational, or empirical. The latter gives only facts and rules; the former, their explanation also, so far as practicable.

The Academy, or High School, has this in common with the College, that, in both, the course of study is mainly or wholly prescribed, and is pursued with immediate reference to mental discipline, at least by those pupils who are candidates for admission to higher institutions, The College has the same end also in common with the University; this gaining of mental power to be afterwards made available by the student as a man among men, a force of being acting on his fellows and his time.

But, on the other hand, the University is adapted to maturer minds than those of college classes, while, again, the High School and Academy, being the final school of many of their pupils, must fit these for such forms of practical life as they are to enter, and must therefore, though on a lower plane, possess something of the character of professional schools. Proceeding now, not ideally, but agreeably with what actually is; students, after passing the age at which mental and practical tastes manifest themselves, may be divided thus: First: Students of Man and his activities, of mind, philosophy, history, and society; and of the pursuits founded upon such study, Theology, Law, Literary Authorship, Teaching, etc. Second: Students of Nature, of mathematics, physics, geography, in the broad sense, including both the surface and substance of the earth, and natural history; and of the pursuits founded upon these, Engineering, Architecture, Applied Physics, Mining, etc.

Not that each of these classes is totally distinct. Each should know something, at least in a general way, of the subjects which principally absorb the attention of the other. Thus the unity, in variety, of life is maintained.

Still, these two classes are so far distinct, that parallel systems of schools,

adapted to each, shape themselves into being, as if spontaneously; showing, by the way, as in many other things, that man's abstract schemes, systems, and services, are but his systematic records of what already was before he became conscious of it, and are not his absolute creations.

The manifestations of individual tastes and life-purposes, already alluded to, generally appear on entering, or while in the stage of education called secondary. Hence elementary education is common to all, but beyond that, there should be, and in fact is, though in a partly mixed and undeveloped condition, the two parallel lines of schools, which may properly be called, the one humanistic, or, more popularly, classical and literary; and naturalistic, more popularly termed scientific and practical. That is, wherever a High School or Academy has a separate "Scientific course," with a section of students actually pursuing it, or wherever a College has the same, not professional, but with science, both mathematical and physical, studied for its own sake, there the two parallel systems are actually established. So far as the two systems are found in separate and distinct organizations, as in the case of existing academies, wholly devoted to preparation for classical colleges; and, again, in academies, wholly devoted, as a few are, I believe, to preparation for the higher scientific schools, the distinct systems are visibly and organically separate, though by no means antagonistic. And in the professional stage, the separation is every where complete, the schools of Law, and other humanistic professions, being ever separate from those of Engineering and other naturalistic ones.

Finally, I repeat, by reason of its vast importance in discountenancing all mental, moral, social, educational or industrial antagonisms in the community, that, so far as time permits, general physics, chemistry, geology, and natural history, or parts of them, should be studied in the humanistic schools, while something of mental and moral philosophy, polite literature, and elocution should be likewise taught in all grades of naturalistic schools.

Coming now to the proposed question of adjustments, how shall we shape it in general? Practically, the modern professionally scientific, or polytechnic school, on coming into existence, must begin with such students as it can get, that is such as secondary education can furnish, since the classical college has no direct relation to it. Also, quite a number of such schools, coming to exist, preparatory schools will spring up, organized with direct reference to placing themselves in line with the professional ones, and meeting the gradually-increasing requirements for admission by the latter. Still, so much having come to pass by the method of action and reaction, or mutual adaptation, the question, as it would seem, should be settled thus. The Polytechnic School, being the highest of its series, that is, not compelled to adapt itself to a succeeding institution, is so far free to shape itself according to an ideal, and should aim and strive to do so; and then the successive lower schools should shape themselves to this.

Working then from the top down, according to the conclusion just reached, we find, first, that there are now about seventy-five scientific professional schools in the United States. These are of various degrees