of the ministry of foreign affairs), de Freycinet (state), General Galliéni (war), Viviani (justice), Malvy (interior), Lacaze (marine), Ribot (finance), Painlevé (instruction and inventions), Sembat (public works), Clementel (commerce), Doumergue (colonies), Malines (agriculture), Matin (labor), and (without portfolio) Combes, Bourgeois, Cochin, Guesde. There were also eight undersecretaries. Announcing the ministerial policy, Briand declared on November 3 that France was determined to carry the war to victory and durable peace. He described the measures which had been taken to ensure closer coöperation between the Allies, the visits of General Joffre to England and Italy having borne fruit in coördinated action between the general staffs. As to the Balkans, Great Britain and France were in complete accord and would never abandon Servia. The chamber approved of this declaration by a vote of 515 to 1.-In June new measures were adopted to increase the supply of munitions. Skilled mechanics, who had been drawn from the factories by mobilization, were now brought back, a mixed commission of employers and employees being appointed to supervise the work. By the middle of the month more than 650,000 men were employed in producing munitions.—In June Parliament appropriated 5,600, 000,000 francs to defray the cost of the war during the third quarter of the year; in September, 6, 200,000,000 francs for the last quarter. This brought the cost of the war for the first seventeen months to 28, 200,000,000 francs. Public subscriptions to the national defence bonds aggregated 995,000,000 francs in April, 1,007,000,000 in May.

RUSSIA-The series of military reverses which began in May and lasted till October (see supra, p. 702) served only to emphasize the solidarity of the nation in its resolution to carry the war to a successful issue. As in Great Britain, efforts were directed towards increasing the supply of munitions. In June a central board was established, including the minister of war, the president of the Duma, members of the council of the empire, and representatives of industry and commerce; and in August the board was strengthened by the addition of nine members of the Duma and invested with final authority to regulate supplies of all kinds. Through local subcommittees the resources of the country were gradually concentrated upon this supreme object. By arrangement with the Japanese government, moreover, enormous supplies were brought over the trans-Siberian railroad. The combined results of these measures were seen in the aggressive spirit of the Russian armies during the month of October. The determination to conduct the war more vigorously found expression in other ways. On June 28 General Sukhomlinoff, minister of war since 1909, was superseded by General Polivanoff, whose appointment was popular in Duma circles; two months later General Alexieff became chief of staff; and on September 7 the Czar himself assumed active command of the armies, transferring Grand Duke Nicholas to the Caucasus. War finances caused great concern because Russia, unable to export her products, had to face a most unfavorable rate of exchange in her purchase of war supplies abroad. The

minister of finance, however, visiting Great Britain and France in September, arranged for substantial advances from both countries. The debt contracted during the first thirteen months of the war aggregated $2,407, 883,000. When the Duma assembled on August 1, a new spirit of confidence characterized the proceedings. The liberals particularly showed a disposition to participate more actively in the affairs of the Empire. Through the efforts of Miliukoff, leader of the Cadets, and Guchkoff, leader of the Octobrists, all the parties except the extreme right, the nationalists and the social democrats, were formed into a "progressive bloc" ommanding 300 out of 439 votes. They formulated a comprehensive program : autonomy for Poland and a conciliatory policy for Finland; full civil rights for the Jews; abolition of feudal privileges in the Baltic provinces; reform of the zemstvos; recognition of trade unions; extension of the suffrage; responsibility of ministers. A movement was set on foot to impeach Sukhomlinoff for his failure to provide the army with munitions. The prime minister felt that this program, though not intended to be immediately effective, would have an unfortunate effect upon the people and divert energy from the prosecution of the war. On September 16, therefore, the Duma was prorogued for two months. At once a storm of public disapproval broke. Strikes, riots, and general confusion seemed imminent. Only the patriotism of the leaders prevented a disastrous general strike.— Early in the summer anti-German riots occurred in Moscow, the damage to property being estimated at $20,000,000.-On June 25 the cabinet appointed a commission consisting of six Russians and six Poles to work out the preliminaries of Polish autonomy in conformity with the proclamation of Grand Duke Nicholas (RECORD of December, 1914, p. 756).

GERMANY-In July, newspaper despatches seemed to indicate that the economic condition of the empire remained strong and that, in spite of the British blockade, the shortage of food supplies had entailed no very serious privations. Nevertheless, the entire control of foodstuffs and military supplies was taken from the states and assumed by the imperial government, a central court of arbitration being erected to determine all questions regarding the maximum prices of commodities; and, in the autumn, reports of distress and rioting became more and more specific. Although these were denied by the government as inventions of the enemy press, they were confirmed to some extent from German sources. The Vorwärts on October 10 estimated that since the opening of the war the cost of necessities for a working man's family had increased 75 to 100 per cent without any corresponding increase in wages; and an economist, writing in another Berlin paper, fixed the increase at 64 per cent and held that suffering would increase in the winter. Indirect evidence seemed to be provided by the appearance of a peace propaganda. On June 9 an open letter to the executive committee of the party was signed by 700 Social Democrats, including 15 deputies and 26 leading journalists. The party, it urged, should demand the immediate termination of the war, since the ruling

class were openly bent upon territorial conquests. The committee, in replying two weeks later, justified the course which that party had taken, but declared that the party was opposed to all wars of conquest and used this significant sentence: "We demand of the government that it make known its readiness to enter upon negotiations in order to put an end to this bloody conflict." The Vorwärts, which published this reply, was suppressed for a time in consequence.-On August 19 the Reichstag assembled. The chancellor, recounting the diplomatic events which had preceded the outbreak of war, made statements which reflected upon the honesty of Sir Edward Grey. Referring to the Poles, he believed that, liberated from the Russian yoke, they could contemplate a happy future and develop the individuality of their national life.—The third German war loan was offered early in September at 99, bearing interest at five per cent ; it was announced on September 22, that more than 12,000,000,000 marks had been subscribed. The aggregate of the three loans was 25,000,000,000 marks.—In July the imperial government published an official reply to the Bryce report on the Belgian atrocities (see supra, p. 727). The main contention was that the Belgians had invariably violated the Geneva convention by carrying on a deliberately-planned guerilla warfare.-Down to September 28, Prussian casualties in the war were 1,916,148.

AUSTRIA-HUNGARY.—The necessity of conserving the food supply led the government of Hungary to sequestrate the entire cereal crop with the exception of maize and to establish under the department of commerce machinery for regulating the whole grain trade, even including supplies for the army. The influence of the great landowners, however, prevented any lowering of maximum prices after the harvest; and in the autumn the high cost of foodstuffs, combined with the reduction of wages, brought great hardships upon the working class. The price of meat had advanced three or four hundred per cent. In September all factories making cotton yarn were closed by decree and required to deliver their cotton stock for the use of the army. This decree affected Czech industries especially.—Although Germany had advanced $500,000,000 in April, it became necessary in the next month to float a new internal loan. No efforts were spared to insure its success, the government press making pointed reference to the profits which landed proprietors had made in the sale of grain and which contractors had made, sometimes by fraud, in supplying the army. Nevertheless, by the end of June, only $300,000,000 had been subscribed.

ITALY AND THE HOLY SEE.-During the early part of May the attitude of government and public alike seemed to indicate an ultimate decision for war. Partial mobilization was ordered on the 9th, and large forces began to concentrate at Verona and other points in the north. Not only did popular demonstrations in the large cities urge the government to action, but Giolitti, the former prime minister, became the object of insistent attack because of his efforts in favor of peace. On the 13th Salandra tendered his resignation, declaring that the cabinet did not

possess that general support of all the parties which the gravity of the situ-
ation required; and only when Giuseppe Marcora, president of the cham-
ber, and Paolo Carcano, a member of the out-going cabinet, refused to
supplant him, did he consent to the king's request that he remain in office.
During the crisis public apprehension of intrigue on the part of Giolitti had
led to serious rioting which necessitated the use of the military; and the
relief which the triumph of Salandra occasioned found expression in pa-
rades and other evidences of rejoicing. Events now moved rapidly. Par-
liament entrusted the cabinet with full powers for the conduct of war;
martial law was proclaimed in a large part of northern Italy; complete
mobilization of army and navy was ordered; and, on May 23, war was de-
clared against Austria-Hungary.-In October the government announced
an internal loan of $25,000,000, taking the form of one-year six-per-cent
notes. The purpose was to give stability to exchange and pay for military
supplies. On October 20 a decree was issued creating new taxes and in-
creasing other taxes for the duration of the war.-On June 21 M. Louis
Latapie described in La Liberté of Paris an interview with the Pope as to
questions arising out of the war. Since Latapie represented the Pope as
entertaining opinions unfavorable to the Allies, great resentment was man-
ifested in Italy and France, even among the clergy. The archbishop of
Ancon promptly issued a pastoral justifying, in ardent terms, the Italian
So emphatic were the protests that efforts were made to correct the
unfortunate impression. The papal secretary of state declared that Latapie
had invented many of his serious assertions and that he had misrepresented
the Pope by using phrases out of their proper context. Benedict himself, in
a letter to Cardinal Amette, asserted that the article "reproduced neither our
thought nor our words."-On July 28 the Pope suggested to the heads of
belligerent states that an exchange of views might lead to the termination
of the war. The Spanish bishops, in June, invited the Pope to transfer the
Holy See to Spain.

cause.

GREECE. In the general elections, which were held in Greece on June
13, Venezelos obtained 186 of the 316 seats. When the chamber met on
August 16, four weeks after the time originally fixed, the government was
decisively beaten on the first important division and resigned. Venezelos
thereupon assumed office, retaining himself the direction of foreign affairs.
He took the view that if Bulgaria, joining the Central Powers, should in-
vade Servia, Greece would be bound by treaty obligations to render military
assistance to Servia. He mobilized the Greek army on September 23 and
secured from the Allies the promise of 150,000 men. When the first de-
tachments landed at Salonica, however, he found it necessary to make
formal protest against the violation of Greek neutrality; and although on
October 5, the chamber, by a vote of 142 to 102, gave evidence of its un-
shaken confidence, the king forced the cabinet out of office on that very
day. A new cabinet, formed ten days later by Alexander Zaimis, included
Ghounaris (interior), Yanakitsas (war) and Rhallis (justice). Zaimis an-

nounced that Greece would maintain a position of armed neutrality for the present and adjust her conduct to the march of events. He did not ask a vote of confidence; but Venezelos promised support so long as the principles of his policy were followed, the question as to war being "when" and not whether."' That support was withdrawn on November 4 when Zaimis had refused the British offer of Cyprus as the price of Greek intervention in the war. Defeated by a vote of 147 to 114, the cabinet resigned.

TURKEY.—On October 3 a committee of distinguished Americans made public a report of its investigation into the alleged Turkish atrocities in Armenia. Basing their conclusions on data of "unquestionable veracity, integrity and authority," they found that "crimes now being perpetrated upon the Armenian people surpass in their horror and cruelty anything that history has recorded during the past 100 years." Lord Bryce, speaking in the British Parliament, estimated that 800,000 had been slain. Not a case in history, he said, since the days of Tamerlane, when a crime so hideous and on so gigantic a scale had been committed. It was a deliberate and premeditated plan to exterminate a nation. On October 12 the American ambassador to Turkey reported that the massacres had been renewed.

OTHER EUROPEAN STATES—A new constitution, which extends the suffrage to women and abolishes the special electoral privileges exercised by the wealthier classes, was promulgated in Denmark on June 5. Women will not only vote in the election of both houses, but also be eligible for membership. The Landsthing will consist of 72 members, 18 being chosen by the present house and 54 by an indirect but democratic proportional system. The Folkething, in addition to the 114 members now chosen in single-member constituencies, will have 26 chosen by proportional representation. By gradual steps the voting age will be reduced from thirty to twenty-five years.-On October 11 the women of Norway voted for the first time under the new electoral law which grants them the suffrage irrespective of the amount of income tax paid; that is, on the same basis as men. Great resentment was manifested in August when a German submarine seized the mails on board a Norwegian steamer bound for England; formal protest was made to Berlin.—Dissatisfaction with the government of Pimento de Castro (see last RECORD, p. 375) developed steadily among radical republicans in Portugal. His failure to summon parliament, his alleged intrigues with monarchists, his weak attitude toward German aggressions in Angola brought matters to a crisis. In the week of May 9 insurrection began in Lisbon, Oporto, Coimbra and other cities. The sailors of the navy mutinied and, after killing their officers, bombarded the capital. By the 16th the revolution was an accomplished fact, Castro being a prisoner and João Chagas prime minister in his stead. Although Chagas was dangerously wounded by a political opponent and thus forced to resign on May 25, the same cabinet continued in office under Jose de Castro, who was sustained in the June elections. On May 29 Theopileh