struggle among the many millions exposed to its effects? The question, in presence of the sheep, would be ludicrous, and common-sense asks, How could beneficial variation be expected from depletion and exhaustion, to which the struggle for existence invariably tends? The flock-master will tell you that the fittest of the survivors is not equal, in any respect, to the unfittest in the flock five years ago, and that the sheep born during the struggle will never equal the old flock; for bitter experience has taught him that an animal that has suffered from unfavourable conditions in its youth will never, however carefully protected afterwards, become a fine specimen of its breed. The finest animals are produced only by continuous careful protection from their birth upwards.

If beneficial variation did in some mysterious manner arise, its possessor would no doubt, in the struggle for existence, probably outlive its fellows. But there must first be the beneficial variation, and of such there is no evidence. Mr Bateson in his work 'On Materials for Variation' does not record among deviations from a normal type-what we call accidents in the loom of life, or monstrosities a single example of beneficial variation; and, considering the exhaustive

character of his work, it

may

be fairly assumed that no example of the kind is known.

It may be argued that the Australian struggle is a very extreme case, but, if the struggle for existence is a stimulus to beneficial variation, it might be expected that the more severe the struggle the greater the stimulus would be, or that at least some evidence of a tendency thereto would be disclosed. The magnitude of the result in Australia only makes more conspicuous the absurdity of the contention, that any beneficial variation can come from the struggle for existence.

We can now clearly recognise that the real function of the struggle for existence is to eliminate the unfit, and thereby to limit degradation of type, as, on the other hand, sterility and precocity limit development.

Natural selection-the name given by Darwin to the outcome of the struggle for existence does not select in the ordinary acceptation of the term. If it does select, it selects for death and not for life, and although survivors in the struggle may benefit by the competition for food becoming less severe,

would not the benefit be greater if there was no competition-no struggle?

The idea that the struggle for existencethat is, unfavourable conditions of life—has a developing influence on animal physique, has probably been suggested by the great development of the moral strength of man under his struggle with adversity; but there is no analogy between the effects of unfavourable conditions of life on animal physique and of adverse circumstances on the moral nature of man.

CHAPTER V.

WE

THE ACCUMULATION OF BENEFICIAL

DIFFERENCES.

We fully recognise differences among individuals of the same race, and also that such differences are specially noticeable amongst domestic animals under selective breeding. Some individuals, compared with their fellows, develop what we consider beneficial differences; and the assumption by Darwin that these beneficial differences accumulate indefinitely, become specific variations, and give rise to new species, is a main prop of his theory.

The hypothesis seems at first sight plausible enough, and, had evolution been brought about by secondary causes, it is possible that the accumulation of beneficial differences might have been an effectual means of developing new species.

But, unfortunately for Darwin's hypothesis, the beneficial differences that arise under

selective breeding do not tend to specific variation, neither does their accumulation go on indefinitely, for experience tells us that the maximum accumulation of beneficial differences may be attained within three generations, and that retrogression then takes place-either the beneficial differences disappear, or sterility bars further accumulation.

Galton, in his work on Hereditary Genius, seems to have proved, by carefully collected statistics, that eminent intellectual and also great physical ability run in families, and are therefore more or less hereditary; but we do not think his statistics present any example of a father, son, and grandson possessing abilities above the average of the family, and in every case the eminence subsequently disappears.

Ability," says Galton (p. 76), "in the long-run does not suddenly start into existence and disappear with equal abruptness, but rather it rises in gradual and regular curve, out of the ordinary level of family life. The statistics show that there is a regular average increase of ability in the generations that precede its culmination, and as regular decrease in those that succeed it.

After three successive dilutions of blood,