compared to those of Horace, and whose charming little novel is the model of Gil Blas, has been handed down to us as one of the sternest of those iron proconsuls who were employed by the House of Austria to crush the lingering public spirit of Italy. Lope sailed in the Armada; Cervantes was wounded at Lepanto.

T. B. MACAULAY: Essays.

26. Development by Comparison or Contrast. A fourth method of developing a paragraph is by comparison or by contrast. In comparison the points of resemblance between the subject of thought and some wellknown object are brought out. This comparison is not to be understood as of the nature of a purely rhetorical figure. A great deal of our reasoning is by comparison, and our knowledge of all sorts is largely relative. The enforcing of the statement of a topic-sentence by comparison is more in the way of illustration than of proof. If the difference between the subject of thought and some well-known object be brought out we call the process a contrast. The statement of the topic-sentence is made more emphatic by being placed in contrast with something of a different but not necessarily conflicting character. The development by comparison or by contrast is much used in description and exposition. The following paragraphs will illustrate this method :

Some minds are wonderful for keeping their bloom in this way, as a patriarchal gold-fish apparently retains to the last its youthful illusion that it can swim in a straight line beyond the encircling glass. Mrs. Tulliver was an amiable. fish of this kind; and after running her head against the

same resisting medium for thirteen years, would go at it again to-day with undulled alacrity.

GEORGE ELIOT: The Mill on the Floss.

Day was breaking on the world. Light, hope, freedom, pierced with vitalizing ray the clouds and the miasma that hung so thick over the prostrate Middle Age, once noble and mighty, now a foul image of decay and death. Kindled with new life, the nations gave birth to a progeny of heroes, and the stormy glories of the sixteenth century rose on awakened Europe. But Spain was the citadel of darkness, a monastic cell, an inquisitorial dungeon, where no ray could pierce. She was the bulwark of the church, against whose adamantine wall the waves of innovation beat in vain. In every country of Europe the party of freedom and reform was the national party, the party of reaction and absolutism was the Spanish party, leaning on Spain, looking to her for help. Above all it was so in France; and while within her bounds there was a semblance of peace, the national and religious rage burst forth on a wider theatre. Thither it is for us to follow it, Florida, the Spaniard and the

where on the shores of

Frenchman, the bigot and the Huguenot, met in the

grapple of death.1

FRANCIS PARKMAN:

Pioneers of France in the New World.

In the following paragraphs point out the comparisons or the contrasts, and show how they are effective in developing the paragraphs:

Mr. Speaker, I know of no parallel to this charming philosophy, unless it is to be found in the sayings of Mause Hedrigg, an elderly Scotch lady, who figures in one of Sir Walter Scott's novels. In one of her evangelical moods, she rebuked her son Cuddie for using a fan, or any work of art, to clean his barley. She said it was an 1 Permission of Little, Brown & Co., publishers.

awesome denial o' Providence not to wait His own time, when He would surely send wind to winnow the chaff out of the grain. In the same spirit of enlightened philosophy does the gentleman exhort us in Ohio, Indiana, and Illinois, to cease our impious road-making, and wait the good time of Providence, who will, as he seems to think, surely send a river to run from Cumberland over the Alleghanies, across the Ohio, and so on, in its heaven-directed course, to St. Louis.

THOMAS CORWIN: The Cumberland Road.

If it were only for a vocabulary, the scholar would be covetous of action. Life is our dictionary. Years are well spent in country labors; in town, in the insight into trades and manufactures; in frank intercourse with many men and women; in science; in art; to the one end of mastering in all their facts a language by which to illustrate and embody our perceptions. I learn immediately from any speaker how much he has already lived, through the poverty or the splendor of his speech. Life lies behind us as the quarry whence we get tiles and copestones for the masonry of to-day. This is the way to learn grammar. Colleges and books only copy the language which the field and the workyard made.

RALPH WALDO EMERSON: The American Scholar.1

.. He (Grant) surpassed his predecessors also in the dignity of the object for which he fought. The three great generals of the world are usually enumerated following Macaulayas being Caesar, Cromwell, and Napoleon. Two of these fought in wars of mere conquest, and the contests of the third were marred by a gloomy fanaticism, by cruelty and by selfishness. General Grant fought to restore a nation, that nation being the hope of the world. And he restored it.. His work was as complete as it was important. Caesar died by violence; Napoleon died defeated; Cromwell's work crumbled to

1 Permission of Houghton, Mifflin & Co., publishers.

pieces when his hand was cold. Grant's career triumphed in its ending; it is at its height to-day. It was finely said by a Massachusetts statesman that we did not fight to bring our opponents to our feet but only to our side. Grant to-day brings his opponents literally to his side, when they act as pallbearers around his coffin.

T. W. HIGGINSON: Ulysses S. Grant.

No, sir, we are above all this. Let the Highland clansman, half-naked, half-civilized, half-blinded by the peat smoke of his cavern, have his hereditary enemy, and his hereditary enmity, and keep his keen, deep, and precious hatred, set on fire of hell, alive if he can; let the North American Indian have his, and hand it down from father to son, by Heaven knows what symbols of alligators, and rattlesnakes, and war-clubs smeared with vermilion and entwined with scarlet; let such a country as Poland, cloven to the earth, the armed heel on her radiant forehead, her body dead, her soul incapable of dying, let her remember the wrongs of days long past; but shall America, young, free, and prosperous, just setting out on the highway of Heaven, . shall she be supposed to be polluting and corroding her noble and happy heart, by moping over old stories of stamp-act, and the tax, and the firing of the Leopard on the Chesapeake in time of peace? No, sir; no, sir; a thousand times, No!

27.

RUFUS CHOATE: The Old Grudge against England.

Development by Cause and Effect. A fifth method by which a paragraph grows from a topic is by making the topic-sentence the cause, and immediately following it by the effects produced. A full paragraph of effects is not often found; more often a few sentences at the end give the effect. This method of development is common in almost all kinds of discourse,

and is often indicated by such words as therefore, consequently, and others, but sometimes this relation of cause and effect is left to the understanding of the reader. If properly suggested, it will be equally clear and vivid, and may be more pleasing by reason of being less formal.

Point out the relation of cause and effect in the paragraphs that follow:

The most erudite woman I know studies as hard at thirty-eight as she did at eighteen. She speaks five languages, is "up" in many systems of philosophy; conversant with scientific discoveries, and is a competent art critic. For all that her acquaintances and the outer world are benefited by her attainments she might as well be unable to read or to write. She has her own study in her father's house, and takes no interest in any other part of it, seldom descending to the drawing-room; and when she takes her meals with the family rarely speaks unless directly addressed. She hates housewifery, has never made a bed or dusted a room, and considers the thimble a degrading implement, a relic of the barbarous ages when woman was a chattel and a beast of burden."

MARION HARLAND: The Independent.

This treatment of his subjects and ignominious punishment of his friend outraged the pride and exasperated the passions of Philip. The bolt which had fallen thus at his very feet awakened him to the gathering storm, and he determined to trust himself no longer in the power of the white men. The fate of his insulted and broken-hearted brother still rankled in his mind; and he had a further warning in the tragical story of Miantonomah, a great Sachem of the Narragansetts, who, after manfully facing his accusers before a tribunal of the colonists, exculpating himself from a charge of conspiracy, and