of beef-marrow in water ten days (changing the water occasionally), and then steep it in rose-water. Put it into a jar with half an ounce of flowers of benjamin, the same of storax and orris-root in powder, and two drachms each of cinnamon, nutmeg, and cloves, in powder. Cover the jar closely, set it in a vessel of water, and put it on the fire; and when the pomade is thus melted, strain it for use. As a very small quantity is ever used at a time, in general it will be found auch more economical to buy a small bottle of it than to prepare the article.

Cold cream. This is a simple and cooling ointment, exceedingly serviceable for rough or chopped hands in winter, or for keeping the skin soft. It is very easily made. Take half an ounce of white wax, and put it into a small basin, with two ounces of almond oil. Place the basin by the side of the fire till the wax is dissolved in the oil. When quite melted, add two ounces of rose-water. This must be done very slowly, little by little; and as you pour it in, beat the mixture smartly with a fork to make the water incorporate. When all is incorporated, the cold cream is complete, and you may pour it into jars for future use. This cold cream is much better than that which is usually sold in shops, and which is too frequently made of inferior ingredients.

Pomatum. This is a soft unguent which is valuable for softening the hands, and preventing them chopping in cold dry weather, or for moistening the hair. It was originally named from its containing apple (pomum, Latin), and consisted of lard, rose-water, and the pulp of apples. It now consists of perfumed hog's-lard, the apple being omitted. The famed sultana pomatum is made as follows:-Melt together half a pound of beef suet, the same of bear's grease, an ounce of white wax, and two ounces of olive oil; and add to it, tied up loosely in muslin, one ounce of bruised cloves, half an ounce of cinnamon, two bruised tonquin beans, and four grains of musk; strain and put into pots. The article called bear's grease, usually sold in the shops, is little else than perfumed beef-marrow; and the many oils offered for restoring and softening the hair are chiefly olive or almond oil, perfumed with different scents. In general, if the hair be well brushed, no such applications are necessary, and in most cases they create a scurf on the head which it requires considerable trouble to get rid

Pomade divine. This is a soft and valuable unguent, possessing a fine aromatic odour. Dr Biddoes recomnds it to be made as follows :-Steep twelve ounces

Spermaceti ointment.-This is a cooling and healing ointment for wounds. Take a quarter of an ounce of white wax and half an ounce of spermaceti (which is a hard white material), and put them in a small basin with two ounces of almond oil. Place the basin by the side of the fire till the wax and spermaceti are dissolved. When cold, the ointment is ready for use. This is an article which it is also much better to make than to purchase. When you make it yourself, you know that it has no irritating or inferior materials in it.

CHAMBERS'S

INFORMATION FOR THE PEOPLE.

CONDUCTED BY WILLIAM AND ROBERT CHAMBERS, EDITORS OF CHAMBERS'S
EDINBURGH JOURNAL, EDUCATIONAL COURSE, &c.

NUMBER 92.

NEW AND IMPROVED SERIES.

PRICE lad.

HEATING, VENTILATION, LIGHTING.

UPON judicious means of heating, ventilating, and light- | annoyances more or less inseparable from it in all its
ing apartments, manufactories, and several classes of
public buildings, very important consequences depend,
including not only the ordinary comfort, but the health
of human beings. We propose here to treat the three
subjects (with the addition of the kindred use of smoke-
consumption) in one paper, but to confine our attention
chiefly to plaus involving scientific principle, as well as
ingenious mechanical contrivance.

shapes; and that it is by no means a mode of heating free from danger to both property and person. These are disadvantages of which every one is aware; and although they are not sufficient to extinguish the pleasure which we take in our sea-coal fires, they may certainly be allowed to furnish reason for inquiring if, by any modification of present plans, fuel could be applied more economically, and at the same time agreeably. There is also, we must recollect, the necessity for modes of heating applicable to public buildings, where the common fire is of little service.

WARMING BY HIGHLY HEATED SURFACES.

One of the first attempts to arrive at a mode of
warming more economical than the common fire, and
applicable to large buildings, suggested the raising of
plates of iron to a high temperature, and causing air to
pass over them on its way to supply the rooms or halls
where it was required. In some part of the building
a furnace was employed to heat the plates, which were
of cast iron, and the air, after passing over them, was
sent forward through a tunnel, and ushered into the
hall or other space required to be heated, either
through a grated aperture in the floor, or by pipes dis-
tributed round the walls or galleries. This mode was
introduced into many churches in the early part of the
present century, and it was fully tried in the London
Custom-house. In the latter building there are seve-
ral large rooms, in which a great number of clerks
and other officers are assembled for business. Into
one, called the Examiners' Room, the air rushed at a
temperature of 170 degrees, to be reduced to a more
moderate heat by its mixing with the air already in
the apartment. In another called the Long Room,
the air entered at a temperature varying from 90 to
170 degrees, being liable to be reduced by a regulated
admission of cold air into the apartment from without.
It is not easy to excuse the ignorance which dictated
this mode of heating. When air passes over plates
raised to red heat, as these were, it is desiccated, or
deprived of its natural humidity; animal and other
matters floating in it are decomposed; it is charged
with sulphurous fumes from the iron; and lastly, by
the drying or desiccation, it is thrown into a state highly
electric. The condition of the air is then nearly the
same with that which African travellers recognised
with terror under the name of the simoom. The con-
sequence in the Custom-house was a general falling off
in the health of the officers, which became at length so
alarming, that that mode of warming the apartments
had to be given up.

It is scarcely necessary to remark, that the mode of heating apartments most prevalent is by a fire of coal placed in a grate, having a chimney above, through which the vaporised products of the fuel are carried off. Of one class of results from this mode there can be no doubt. The fire, sparkling or glowing in its appropriate receptacle, has an air of cheerfulness and comfort which strikes every beholder, causing the domestic group to cluster around it with that feeling of satisfaction which makes an Englishman regard his fireside as amongst the most precious things connected with his existence. But while the common open fire is almost an object of worship amongst us on account of its pleasant look and power of concentrating the whole family in one social circle, it is not unattended with certain drawbacks, difficulties, and disadvantages; nor can it be applied well in any place besides an ordinary apartment. The greatest drawback is the uneconomical use which it makes of fuel. About one-half of the heat produced by a common fire ascends with the smoke. The smoke itself is an unconsumed part of the fuel. Finally, about a fourth of the heat which is radiated into the apartment is, in ordinary circumstances, carried into the chimney between the fire and the mantel-piece, and thus lost. It is calculated by Dr Arnott that only about one-eighth part of the heatproducing power of the fuel used in common fires is realised, all the rest being dissipated into the surrounding atmosphere. Count Rumford gave even a more unfavourable calculation, making the dissipated or lost part to be no less than fourteen-fifteenths. He probably over-estimated the loss considerably; but that a very large portion of the power of fuel is forfeited in the use of common chimneys, is just as certain as it is that an open fire is an object which every eye delights to rest upon. Dr Arnott's estimate is probably not much, if at all, above the truth. It is also unquestionable that often a common fire is found to give a partial kind of warmth, heating the side of our persons next to it, but leaving the rest cold; that it also produces draughts into our rooms which are anything but safe or agreeable; that often one active fire deranges the action of the chimneys of other fires, and hils the house with smoke; that smoke and dust are

The mode of warming by highly-heated surfaces is now generally condemned on account of its deleterious effects on the air; but it is still in practice to some extent, and we have therefore thought ourselves called

upon to introduce a brief description of it, in order to | Dr Arnott was gradually led to the adoption of this
have an opportunity of explaining its unsuitableness,
and warning against its use. It may be safely set down
as a first principle in the science of heating, that no
mode which materially alters the chemical character
of the air can be compatible with health. Common
stoves are liable to this objection in greater or less
measure, and are therefore rarely used excepting in
lobbies.

WARMING BY MODERATELY HEATED SURFACES.

The objections to the above mode of heating would obviously be in a great measure overcome, if, instead of a small surface highly heated, a large one moderately heated were used. This may be done in various ways, as-1. By a furnace operating upon the heat-giving surface; 2. By steam in tubes; or 3. By hot water

also in tubes.

Surfaces Heated by Internal Furnaces-Strutt's and
Arnott's Stoves.

The first attempt of which we are aware to give
warmth by hot air from large moderately heated sur-
faces, was made by Mr William Strutt, of Derby, in
1792. The cotton-mill of the copartnery to which he
belonged was in that year fitted up with a stove con-
structed upon this principle; and the same plan, after
being tried in his own house and those of his friends,
was introduced, with all the improvements of which it
was deemed capable, into the Derby Infirmary in 1807.
It has since been copied in various public and private
buildings.

mode of warming. He had got a large box of hot water fitted up in his study, which gave the requisite tem perature; but the hot water being supplied by a pipe from the kitchen fire below, some inconveniences were experienced, which suggested to him the fitting up of what has been called a water-clad stove, namely, an ordinary room stove, surrounded by a close outer case containing water, which the fire within maintained at boiling heat. From this it was but a step to the adop tion of a similar large case, to be maintained at about the temperature of boiling water by a small and regu lated fire within. Such is the Arnott stove.

The learned inventor has described several modifications of his stove, and it has been copied in many various ways, generally with little regard to the original principle. We shall select for description one simple form, which seems to have been the first exemplified by Dr Arnott, and in which the fundamental principle seems to be as well brought out as in any other. This stove consists of a sheet iron box, a b d, which may be

Shortly, and dismissing unimportant details, the
Strutt-stove consists of a cockle, or plate-iron box, of
about two feet in height by one in breadth of sides,
inverted with the open mouth downwards over a small
close furnace, which heats it to about 280 degrees.
Another somewhat larger box surmounts this, leaving
the space of an inch or so between. This outer box is
perforated with numerous holes, into which short open
tubes are fitted, projecting outwards. This apparatus
being constructed in a small close room, a channel or
culvert of considerable width is made to communicate
between that room and the open air on the outside of
the house. On the fire being kindled in the furnace,
the cockle is heated to the desired height, and no more,
a control being exercised over the fire by a valve for
communicating air to the furnace. The air immediately
without the cockle is warmed, and, by virtue of its in-
creased temperature, begins to ascend. To replace it,
fresh air is drawn in through the culvert, and through
the numerous tubular apertures of the outer case, and
made to rush against the heated vessel within. This air
is accordingly heated too, and pursues the same line of
ascent. Thus there is a constant flow of moderately
heated air upwards. This may either be allowed to
pass into an open hall, staircase, or any other single
space which it is desired to warm, or it may be carried
along in flues and distributed into different rooms. It
will be observed that the instrument or medium for
warmth in this case is a stream of heated air: the
temperature desired for it is about 64 degrees, and it is
kept at this low point by the spaciousness of the cul-
vert. In the house of Sir John Robison, Randolph Cres-
cent, Edinburgh, fitted up on this plan, there are two
culverts giving a total area of fourteen square feet.
The constant rushing of so large a volume of air into
the house implies a necessity for some flues or aper-
tures to carry it off after it has served its purposes. The
collective areas of these flues or apertures ought to be
the same as those of the cold air passages or culverts.
In the stove used in the Derby Infirmary, it was found
that one pound of coal raised 20,000 pounds of air
through one degree of temperature.*

The Arnott stove is upon the same principle of an
extensive and moderately warm heating surface, but
it has as yet been only constructed in a portable form.

*Sylvester's Philosophy of Domestic Economy, &c., 1819.

of any dimensions, in proportion to the size of the room to be heated. It is divided by the partition g h into t chambers of unequal dimensions, which communicate freely at the top and bottom. A fire-box, e, composed of iron lined with fire-brick, rests at the bottom of the larger chamber. Access is obtained to it, for the purpose of supplying fuel, by the door i, which must fit closely. The refuse of the fire falls into an ash-pit, the door of which is at b. Here, also, is a valve for the supply of air to the fire-box. The fumes and heat of the fire pass in the direction indicated by the arroy giving warmth to the outer case. The smoke finally passes off, by the flue c, into an adjoining chimney. The aim of the inventor was to heat an extensive sur face to about 200 degrees Fahrenheit, so as to diffe a moderate warmth into a room. He attains the powe of keeping the heat at this height by the valve for admitting air. When this is opened widely, a large stream of air enters, and combustion becomes active. When, on the contrary, the aperture is reduced, a compara tively small stream is admitted, and combustion lan guishes. The temperature of the outer case is raised or depressed accordingly. By the revolution of the heat and smoke round the division of the chambers, their power of giving forth warmth is expended as far a possible on the plates of the outer case, so as to be ser viceable for the end in view; and it might be possible flue, or causing a greater extent of it to pass throne to exhaust the whole for that end by lengthening the the air of the room before entering the chimney. The

* Dr Arnott on Warming and Ventilating, 188

Arnott stove certainly makes the most economical use | invention for the improvement of health, he presented

of fuel of any species of contrivance for producing artificial heat as yet known. Six pounds of Welsh coal or coke, of the value of one penny, will serve an ordinary one for a whole day.

it to the world, as he had previously done his hydrostatic bed. It was therefore made by many furnishing ironmongers in the metropolis and elsewhere, some of whom took out patents for what they considered as improvements upon it. Though the intention of the inventor was good, his liberality has had a bad result. The principle, simple as it appears, was not well understood. The stoves made by all, except a very few ironmongers, were constructed erroneously, the prevalent fault being a diminution of the heating surface in proportion to the strength of the furnace. It is a curious fact in science, well worthy of being noticed, that twelve patents were taken out in one year for modifications of the Arnott stove, all of which Dr Arnott considered to be upon false principles. The consequence has been, that many Arnott stoves, which had been introduced into houses with a good hope of their acting beneficially, have been given up on account of the inconvenience felt from the species of heat which they generated. It is also, however, to be observed that the stove, made even upon the most approved principles, would require certain adjuncts and conditions in order to operate agreeably.

The Arnott stove is capable of something nearly approaching to self-regulation. When it was invented, about 1834, there was in existence a well-known means of adjusting the temperature of bakers' ovens by a selfacting thermometer. Though an old expedient, some person had recently secured a patent upon it, and Dr Arnott was therefore unable to take advantage of it for his stove. There are, however, many modes of producing the same curious mechanical results, and a few of these he specifies. That which he has employed in the stoves made under his own care, consists of a glass tube inserted horizontally into the upper part of the heated chamber of his stove, with a downward bend on the outside. Mercury is put into the bend of this tube, leaving the part which is within the stove empty of all but common air. This air, of course, expands in proportion to the heat of the stove, and in doing so presses upon the mercury in that part of the outer bend next to it. The mercury in the other part of the bent tube accordingly rises. A float on its surface is thus raised. Connected with the float is a wire, which acts upon a valve at the door of the fire-box, causing it to open and shut according as the float falls or rises. By such simple means, the least increase of heat within immediately and unavoidably brings about a diminution of the supply of air to the fire, which therefore instantly begins to burn less intensely. So, also, any decrease of heat instantly produces a larger supply of air, by which the fire is, as it were, poked, and begins to burn more brightly. The cooling from a fresh supply of coke must of course cause that increased supply of oxygen which is necessary to make the new materials glow; and the new and great heat thus brought about must immediately check itself by the closing of the valve. It is also obvious, that when the materials are nearly burnt down, and the supply of air thus increased, the only consequence is, that the air rushes in as long as there is anything to burn, and no longer.

All metal surfaces, however well the principle of a large superficies moderately warmed may be observed, raise the temperature by two means, namely, by radiation and by conduction. Radiated heat, which is that given by a common fire, is perfectly safe; but the heat produced by the air coming in contact with a warmed surface is more or less deteriorated. The air, which forms the instrument or medium for heating the rest, has been altered in its character, particularly in being desiccated, or deprived of its humidity. It is necessary to counteract this result by an artificial infusion of humidity into the atmosphere. This may be done in various ways. The most common plan is to place a large open dish of water upon the stove; but in this case the evaporation does not proceed rapidly enough. It is better to keep a large wet cloth hanging near the stove. Perhaps the best possible arrangement is that consisting in a trough of water, with a roller moving in it, and a similar roller forming a windlass about two feet above. Between the windlass and the roller an endless piece of towelling revolves. The bottom of the piece of towelling passing, of course, through the water, it is only necessary to turn the windlass a few times in order to make the whole wet; and this process may be repeated as often as necessary. The vapour constantly arising from the cloth will, if sufficient in quantity, make good the want of humidity in the stove-heated air. Such an arrangement is necessary, not only in connexion with the Arnott stove, but with Mr Strutt's contrivances, and with all the modes of heating by warmed metal surfaces. We shall consider some further arrangements which such modes of heating render necessary, under the head VENTILATION.

Hot Water and Steam Apparatus.

The express advantages of the thermometer stove are enumerated by the learned inventor under fourteen heads, which we shall abridge. 1. Economy of fuel. While in the case of a common open fire, seven-eighths of the heat goes up the chimney, nearly the whole heat is secured by the stove. A gentleman known to us saw Dr Arnott put a few leaves of a pamphlet into his firebox, the ignition of which immediately heated the whole stove, and diffused an agreeable warmth throughout the room. An ordinary room can be kept warm by the stove for twenty-four hours, at the expense of one penny in coke or anthracite. 2. The temperature diffused by the stove is uniform throughout the room. 3. The stove is always alight, to the saving of much of that inconvenience and loss of time occasioned by the going out and kindling of ordinary fires. 4. No smoke, of the character of the smoke of a common fire, arises from the stove, but only a slight stream of volatile gases. 5. No dust is diffused throughout the room. 6. The dangers to which children, old people, and others, are exposed from a common fire, are obviated. 7. The danger to property is as little as the danger to persons. 8. The stove is obedient to command, and could be managed by a child. 9. It can be established The idea of warming rooms by pipes filled with hot at little expense. 10. It saves all expense for attend- water occurred to the Marquis de Chabannes, who first ance. 11. It is easily moved. 12. It may be fashioned exemplified it in his own house in England. The plan into any graceful or convenient form, so as to ornament has latterly been patented, and extensively acted upon a room. Dr Arnott mentions that it may be in the form by the ingenious copartnery of Perkins and Heath, of a statue. 13. A drawer inserted into the heated London. It proceeds upon a simple law of heat, that chamber of the stove would serve for cooking meat, particles of any fluid warmed above the temperature of and a pot for boiling might be placed upon the fire- those surrounding them, ascend. Thus, in a kettle of box; it is therefore, as Dr Arnott remarks, peculiarly water upon a fire, the particles at the bottom are heated the poor man's stove. 14. No sweeping-boys are re-first, and immediately ascend to the surface, their place Under a sense of professional honour, Dr Arnott did not take out a patent for his stove. Regarding it as an

quired.

In the hot-water and steam apparatus, the immediate agent for heating is the same as in the Strutt and Arnott stoves, namely, an extensive metallic surface moderately heated. But the heating is in these cases effected by hot water and by steam respectively, and the arrangement and character of the warm surfaces are different.

being instantly taken by cool particles from above,
which again in like manner ascend as soon as heated;
so that there is a constant flow of cool particles down-

Attic

Draw? Room
Floor

a

b

indeed, to an entire city. From some central establish ment, on a low level, where the heat was applied, there might proceed pipes to the various houses, in the same manner as the pipes from a gas-work. There would of course be a waste of heat in all those parts of the pipe which passed through streets and between one house and another; but this might be amply compensated by other economical features in the arrange. ment.*

There is a variation of the hot-water apparatus, in which it is made to take much of the form of Mr Strutt's plan, a large coil of pipe in one hot-air chamber being the means of supplying warmed air to be distributed over the building. It has been exemplified at Coleshill, the mansion of the Earl of Radnor in Berkshire. The plan, in its ordinary form, has been applied also to vineries, conservatories, and forcing-houses, to which it must be considered as undeniably appropriate, if there be no objection on the score of expense.

ward and warmed particles upward, until the whole |
are heated. The hot-water heating apparatus consists
of a stout metal pipe, pervading the house in all the
parts which are desired to be heated, having a valve at
the top, and a coil at the bottom exposed to a furnace.
This tube being filled with water from the top, and the
fire being kindled in the furnace, warm particles begin
to ascend, and are quickly felt at the very highest part
of the pipe. The water heats gradually from the top
downward, until the whole is warm. The pipe then
gives off heat to the surrounding atmosphere. Such
is the principle. The arrangement of the pipe may be
various: the plan gene-
rally followed is to place
a considerable coil of it
within a pedestal or
bunker, with open trellis
work in front, in a con-
venient part of the room,
It may also be made to
wind round the room,
behind the skirting-
board, which, being per-
forated with holes, will
allow of the entrance of
the warmed air. The
amount of pipe allowed
to a room ought of course
to bear a proportion to
the size of the room, and
other circumstances af-
fecting its temperature.
The pipes are generally
round, and from three
to four inches in dia-
meter; but flattish pipes
have sometimes been
used. In the earlier
stages of the history of
the apparatus, a boiler
was employed at the
bottom for the heating
of the water; but this
was soon found to be
attended with great
danger, in consequence
of the tendency of water
in a tube to burst any Filling Tube
a Expansion Tube
vessel of capacity into
which it may descend. The substitution of a coil of pipe
was an improvement suggested by Mr A. M. Perkins.
At the top of the apparatus, the pipe expands into
what is called the expansion tube, which is left empty, to
save the risk of bursting by the expansion of the water.
Fifteen per cent. of space is found by experience to be
an ample allowance for the expansibility of the water.
A compendious and readily understood specimen of the
apparatus, calculated for a house of three storeys, is
presented in the accompanying engraving. It is im-
portant to observe that the pipe, while operating, is
closed in every part, the air having been previously
pumped out of it. The heat usually maintained is
180 degrees; but it can be increased to 400 degrees,
where such is necessary, as it is, for example, in cer-
tain drying houses.

Ground
Floor

Furnace

Heating by steam-pipes is the only mode which re mains to be considered. It was suggested nearly a century ago in the "Philosophical Transactions," but was not for many years after reduced to practice. At length it began to be introduced into factories, where a great facility existed for its operation in the boilers connected with the steam-engines. As respects its power of heating, and effect upon the surrounding air, it is identical with the plan last described, excepting only that the surface of the pipes in this case can never be at a higher temperature than 212 degrees. The size of the pipes and other arrangements are considerably different. The following is an account of the apparatus fitted up on this plan in the printing-office from which the present work is issued:-" An iron tube, on which there is a crane, carries the steam from the boiler to a connected series of long tin pipes within the building, The diameter of these tin pipes is about ten inches, and they hang from the ceiling by means of small chains a few inches in length, so as to be quite clear of every article of furniture, and every head passing beneath. There is just one pipe going along each of the two lower storeys in this manner; and from each a small waste pipe goes outside to let off the waste steam and con densed water. The pipes are varnished black, to cause the heat to radiate freely from them. The whole ap paratus is exceedingly simple, and is managed with perfect ease. The smallest turn of the crane permits the steam to rush through, and to fill the pipes, when an immediate radiation of heat commences. So effec tual is the process, that if the steam be admitted only twice a-day, for an hour at a time, the premises are kept in a state of the most agreeable warmth for the whole day. There can be no proper comparison be twixt this plan of heating and that of common fireplaces. Coal fires cannot warm the air in large workshops; they only heat the air in their own immediate neigh bourhood; and hence the workmen are often obliged to draw near the grate to warm themselves. Accord ing to the plan we have adopted, every part of the house is equally heated, and the whole of the workmen are as comfortable during the hardest frosts as if they were working in a pleasant summer day. In conse quence of this abundant warmth, all the fires have been withdrawn. It is difficult for us to say what is the probable expense of supplying the heat, seeing that we The hot-water apparatus has been fitted up by happen to draw our steam from a boiler which is always Messrs Perkins and Heath in various public build-in operation for other purposes. We believe, however, ings, warehouses, and gentlemen's houses; and, while that the expense of keeping up a necessary supply of sufficiently effective for the desired end, it has been steam for such an apparatus must be very small, per proved to be attended with as few drawbacks as any haps not more than that for a single coal fire. Our regulated mode of heating whatever. But there is a apparatus cost about £80, and this sum will doubtless great obstacle to its general adoption in its expensive- be saved in the course of a few winters. A similar If this difficulty were not insuperable, the plan, plan of steam-heating by means of cast-iron pipes is par from the natural principles on which it is founded, sued in many places, but we approve most of tubes f could be applied very easily to several buildings at sheet tin soldered together. Tin is light and cheap, d once, or even to a considerable part of a town-if not, allows the heat at once to operate, and, in case of exRichardson's "Popular Treatise on the Warming and Ventilati *A minute account of the hot-water plan is given in CJ

ness.

*The British Museum in London, and the Register House and

Justiciary Court Room in Edinburgh, are warmed upon this

plan.

of Buildings." 1839.