Opinion of the Court

ity for "invoking state replevin, garnishment, and attachment statutes" later declared unconstitutional were "entitled to qualified immunity from suit." Id., at 159. It held that they were not. Id., at 169. We find four aspects of Wyatt relevant here.

First, as Wyatt noted, § 1983 basically seeks "to deter state actors from using the badge of their authority to deprive individuals of their federally guaranteed rights" and to provide related relief. Id., at 161 (emphasis added) (citing Carey v. Piphus, 435 U. S. 247, 254-257 (1978)); see also Owen v. Independence, 445 U. S. 622, 654 (1980). It imposes liability only where a person acts "under color" of a state "statute, ordinance, regulation, custom, or usage." 42 U. S. C. § 1983. Nonetheless, Wyatt reaffirmed that § 1983 can sometimes impose liability upon a private individual. 504 U. S., at 162; see also Lugar v. Edmondson Oil Co., 457 U. S. 922, 924 (1982).

Second, Wyatt reiterated that after Harlow, supra, and this Court's reformulation of the qualified immunity doctrine, see Anderson v. Creighton, 483 U. S. 635, 645 (1987), a distinction exists between an “immunity from suit" and other kinds of legal defenses. 504 U. S., at 166-167; see also Mitchell, supra, at 526. As the Wyatt concurrence pointed out, a legal defense may well involve "the essence of the wrong," while an immunity frees one who enjoys it from a lawsuit whether or not he acted wrongly. 504 U. S., at 171172 (KENNEDY, J., concurring).

Third, Wyatt specified the legal source of § 1983 immunities. It pointed out that although § 1983 "creates a species of tort liability that on its face admits of no immunities,"" id., at 163 (quoting Imbler v. Pachtman, 424 U. S. 409, 417 (1976)), this Court has nonetheless accorded immunity where a

"tradition of immunity was so firmly rooted in the common law and was supported by such strong policy reasons that "Congress would have specifically so provided had it wished to abolish the doctrine." 504 U. S., at 164 (quoting Owen v. Independence, supra, at 637).

Opinion of the Court

The Wyatt majority, in deciding whether or not the private defendants enjoyed immunity, looked both to history and to "the special policy concerns involved in suing government officials." 504 U. S., at 167; see also Mitchell, supra, at 526; Harlow, supra, at 807; Imbler v. Pachtman, supra, at 424. And in this respect-the relevant sources of the law-both the Wyatt concurrence and the dissent seemed to agree. Compare 504 U. S., at 169–171 (KENNEDY, J., concurring) (existence of immunity depends upon "historical origins" and "public policy"), with id., at 175-176 (REHNQUIST, C. J., dissenting) ("immunity" recognized where "similarly situated defendant would have enjoyed an immunity at common law” or "when important public policy concerns suggest the need for an immunity").

Fourth, Wyatt did not consider its answer to the question before it as one applicable to all private individuals—irrespective of the nature of their relation to the government, position, or the kind of liability at issue. Rather, Wyatt explicitly limited its holding to what it called a "narrow” question about “private persons . . . who conspire with state officials," id., at 168, and it answered that question by stating that private defendants "faced with § 1983 liability for invoking a state replevin, garnishment, or attachment statute" are not entitled to immunity, id., at 168–169.

Wyatt, then, did not answer the legal question before us, whether petitioners-two employees of a private prison management firm-enjoy a qualified immunity from suit under § 1983. It does tell us, however, to look both to history and to the purposes that underlie government employee immunity in order to find the answer. Id., at 164; see also Newport v. Fact Concerts, Inc., 453 U. S. 247, 259 (1981); Owen, supra, at 638; Imbler, supra, at 424.

B

History does not reveal a "firmly rooted" tradition of immunity applicable to privately employed prison guards.

Opinion of the Court

Correctional services in the United States have undergone various transformations. See D. Shichor, Punishment for Profit 33, 36 (1995) (Shichor). Government-employed prison guards may have enjoyed a kind of immunity defense arising out of their status as public employees at common law. See Procunier v. Navarette, 434 U. S. 555, 561-562 (1978) (extending qualified immunity to state prison guards). But correctional functions have never been exclusively public. Shichor 33, 36. Private individuals operated local jails in the 18th century, G. Bowman, S. Hakim, & P. Seidenstat, Privatizing the United States Justice System 271, n. 1 (1992), and private contractors were heavily involved in prison management during the 19th century. Shichor 33, 36.

During that time, some States, including southern States like Tennessee, leased their entire prison systems to private individuals or companies which frequently took complete control over prison management, including inmate labor and discipline. G. Bowman, S. Hakim, & P. Seidenstat, Privatizing Correctional Institutions 42 (1993); see generally B. McKelvey, American Prisons: A Study in American Social History Prior to 1915, pp. 172-180 (1968) (describing 19thcentury American prison system); see also Shichor 34; G. de Beaumont & A. de Tocqueville, On the Penitentiary System in the United States and Its Application in France 35 (1833) (describing more limited prison contracting system in Massachusetts and Pennsylvania). Private prison lease agreements (like inmate suits) seem to have been more prevalent after § 1983's enactment, see generally M. Mancini, One Dies, Get Another (1996), but we have found evidence that the common law provided mistreated prisoners in prison leasing States with remedies against mistreatment by those private lessors. See, e. g., Dade Coal Co. v. Haslett, 83 Ga. 549, 550551, 10 S. E. 435, 435-436 (1889) (convict can recover from contractor for injuries sustained while on lease to private company); Boswell v. Barnhart, 96 Ga. 521, 522-523, 23 S. E. 414, 415 (1895) (wife can recover from contractor for chain

Opinion of the Court

gang-related death of husband); Dahlheim v. Lemon, 45 F. 225, 228-230 (1891) (contractor liable for convict injuries); Tillar v. Reynolds, 96 Ark. 358, 360-361, 365-366, 131 S. W. 969, 970, 971-972 (1910) (work farm owner liable for inmate beating death); Weigel v. Brown, 194 F. 652 (CA8 1912) (prison contractor liable for unlawful whipping); see also Edwards v. Pocahontas, 47 F. 268 (CC Va. 1891) (inmate can recover from municipal corporation for injuries caused by poor jail conditions); Hall v. O'Neil Turpentine Co., 56 Fla. 324, 47 So. 609 (1908) (private prison contractor and subcontractor liable to municipality for escaped prisoner under lease agreement); see generally Mancini, supra (discussing abuses of 19th-century private lease system). Yet, we have found no evidence that the law gave purely private companies or their employees any special immunity from such suits. Cf. Almango v. Board of Supervisors of Albany County, 32 N. Y. Sup. Ct. 551 (1881) (no cause of action against private contractor where contractor designated state instrumentality by statute). The case on which the dissent rests its argument, Williams v. Adams, 85 Mass. 171 (1861) (which could not-without more-prove the existence of such a tradition and does not, moreover, clearly involve a private prison operator) actually supports our point. It suggests that no immunity from suit would exist for the type of intentional conduct at issue in this case. See ibid. (were “battery" at issue, the case would be of a different "character" and “the defendant might be responsible"); see id., at 176 (making clear that case only involves claim of ordinary negligence for lack of heat and other items, not "gross negligence," "implied malice," or "intention to do the prisoner any bodily injury"); cf. Tower v. Glover, 467 U. S. 914, 921 (1984) (concluding that state public defenders do not enjoy immunity from suit where conduct intentional and no history of immunity for intentional conduct was established).

Correctional functions in England have been more consistently public, see generally 22 Encyclopedia Brittanica,

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"Prison" 361-368 (11th ed. 1911); S. Webb & B. Webb, English Prisons Under Local Government (1922) (Webb), but historical sources indicate that England relied upon private jailers to manage the detention of prisoners from the Middle Ages until well into the 18th century. Shichor 21; see also Webb 4-5; 1 E. Coke, Institutes 43 (1797). The common law forbade those jailers to subject "their prisoners to any pain or torment, ,"" whether through harsh confinement in leg irons, or otherwise. See In re Birdsong, 39 F. 599, 601 (SD Ga. 1889); 1 Coke, supra, at 315, 316, 381; 2 C. Addison, A Treatise on the Law of Torts § 1016, pp. 224-225 (1876); see also 4 Geo. IV, ch. 64, § X Twelfth. And it apparently authorized prisoner lawsuits to recover damages. 2 Addison, supra, §1016. Apparently the law did provide a kind of immunity for certain private defendants, such as doctors or lawyers who performed services at the behest of the sovereign. See Tower, supra, at 921; J. Bishop, Commentaries on Non-Contract Law §§ 704, 710 (1889). But we have found no indication of any more general immunity that might have applied to private individuals working for profit.

Our research, including the sources that the parties have cited, reveals that in the 19th century (and earlier) sometimes private contractors and sometimes government itself carried on prison management activities. And we have found no conclusive evidence of a historical tradition of immunity for private parties carrying out these functions. History therefore does not provide significant support for the immunity claim. Cf. Briscoe v. LaHue, 460 U. S. 325, 330-334 (1983) (immunity for witnesses); Pierson v. Ray, 386 U.S. 547, 554-555 (1967) (immunity for judges and police officers); Tenney v. Brandhove, 341 U. S. 367, 372-376 (1951) (immunity for legislators).

C

Whether the immunity doctrine's purposes warrant immunity for private prison guards presents a closer question. Wyatt, consistent with earlier precedent, described the doc