measures. Geometry is necessary, because in Scripture circles of all kinds occur in the building of the ark and Solomon's temple. Music and astronomy are required in connection with divine service, which can not be celebrated with dignity and decency without music, nor on fixed and definite days without astronomy."

(B.) CATHEDRAL AND PAROCHIAL SCHOOLS.

Besides the convent or monastic schools, there were two other classes of schools that owed their origin to the Church during the middle ages. They were the cathedral and the parochial schools. The cathedral schools, though previously existing to some extent, received their perfected organization through Bishop Chrodegang in the eighth century. The priests connected with each cathedral church were organized into a monastic brotherhood, one of whose foremost duties was to establish and conduct schools. These were designed chiefly for the instruction of candidates for the priesthood, but were, at the same time, accessible to others. The instruction in these schools was very much the same as in the convent-schools, embracing the seven liberal arts, but laying a little more stress on religious subjects.

The parochial schools were established in the separate parishes under the supervision of the priest. They were designed to acquaint the youth with the elements of Christian doctrine, to prepare them for intelligent participation in public worship, and especially to introduce them into church-membership. Their function was similar to that of the catechetical schools of the primitive Church. Reading and writing did not usually

form any part of the course of study. The discipline in these, as in all the other schools of the middle ages, was rough and severe, the rod being unsparingly used.

Neander thus speaks of the interest of the Church in the instruction of the people: "The third Council of Valence in 855 decreed in its sixteenth canon that every bishop should either in person, or by the agency of wellinstructed ministers of the Church, so administer the word of preaching, both in the city and in the country churches, that there should be no want of wholesome exhortation for the people; for when God's Word is not furnished to the faithful, the soul is deprived of the element of its life. Herard, Bishop of Tours, in his pastoral instructions written in the year 858, directed that the priests should expound before all the faithful the doctrines of the incarnation of the Son of God; of his passion, his resurrection, and ascension; of the effusion of the Holy Spirit, and the forgiveness of sins to be obtained through the same Spirit, and the baptism into the bosom of the Church; that they should warn people against sins, particularly sins of the grosser sort, and instruct them in the nature of the virtues. . . . The necessity of establishing schools for the promotion of religious instruction and of the prerequisite culture was also acknowledged. In the year 859 the Council of Langres and the Council of Savonnières decreed that, wherever God raised up able men for teachers, all suitable efforts should be made to found public schools, so that the fruits of both kinds of knowledge, spiritual and secular, might grow in the Church; for it is a lamentable fact, and a most disastrous evil, that the true

understanding of Scripture has already become so far lost that the lingering remains of it are now scarcely to be found. . . . But the defects we have already noticed in the constitution of the Church were the true reason why a sufficient number of the clergy were never to be found capable, or inclined to study and apply these instructions. The majority of the clergy who came in immediate contact with the people possessed no other qualification for their office than a certain skill and expertness in performing the ceremonies of the Church. The liturgical element would thus of necessity tend continually to acquire an undue predominance, suiting as it did the prevalent idea of the priesthood; while the didactic element-an element so important for promoting the religious knowledge which was so neglected among the people would, on the other hand, retreat more and more into the background."

(C.) CHARLEMAGNE.

The labors of Charlemagne for the moral and intellectual elevation of his people were intelligent and fruitful. He sought to multiply educational facilities on a large scale; and he even went so far as to contemplate the organization of a popular school system. He endeavored to enlist the interest of the clergy and monks in education, as they were at this time the chief representatives of learning. He opposed their worldliness and immorality, and exacted a faithful discharge of their duties. The monasteries and bishops were urged to improve the schools already existing, and to establish new ones wherever needed. The sphere of the parochial schools was enlarged; and the village priests were re

quired to teach not only religion, but also reading, arithmetic, and singing.

Charlemagne thus speaks in a circular letter addressed to the bishops and convents: "We esteem it useful not only that care should be exercised to live orderly and religiously in the bishoprics and monasteries intrusted to our care by the grace of God, but also that all those who by God's help are able to teach should give instruction in the sciences. For although it is better to do than to know, yet it is necessary to know in order to be able to do. . . . Hence, we admonish you not only not to neglect the study of the sciences, but also to strive after the ability to fathom easily and cer. tainly the secrets of holy Scripture. But, since there are in the same allegories, figures, and the like, it is evident that he will best understand them in their true spiritual sense who is well instructed in the sciences. Hence, let men be chosen for such work who possess willingness and ability to learn, and art to teach."

Charlemagne exhibited a great thirst for knowledge, and was himself a model of diligence in study. He invited to his court from all parts of Europe the most distinguished scholars, of whom Alcuin, of England, the most learned man of his time, is best known. With these he maintained interesting and intimate relations, presiding at their assemblies and sharing in their discussions. He established a model school at court, and sometimes visited it in person to note the progress of the pupils. It is related of him that he once placed the diligent pupils on his right, and the idle ones on his left; and, when he found that the latter were chiefly sons of noble parents, he addressed them thus: "Be

cause you are rich and the sons of noblemen, you think that your riches and birth are enough, and that you have no need of those studies which would do you so much honor. You think only of dress, play, and pleasure; but I tell you that I attach no importance to this nobility and wealth which bring you consideration; and, if you do not speedily make up by assiduous study for the time you have lost in frivolity, never will you obtain anything from Charles."

The educational activity stimulated by Charlemagne largely died away during the agitated reigns of his weak and grasping successors.

(D.) SECULAR EDUCATION.

In the latter half of the middle ages, secular edu cation came into prominence. It assumed two directions: the one was the offspring of chivalry, and may be termed knightly education; the other arose from the business necessities of the cities, and may be termed burgher or town education. These secular tendencies were in part a reaction against the one-sided religious character of the ecclesiastical schools, and in part the natural product of peculiar social conditions. What these conditions were will now be examined.

Society during the middle ages may be divided into three classes: ecclesiastics, embracing the clergy and monks; warriors, including the nobles and knights; and producers, comprehending mechanics, tradesmen, and peasants. During a great part of the middle ages, the ecclesiastics exerted a tyrannical domination over the other two classes, holding in their hands, as they did, the keys of knowledge and salvation. The pope assumed