deaux, Clermont, Poitiers, Dijon, Grenoble, Lille, Nancy, Lyons, Marseilles, Montpellier, Toulouse; and those of literature at Paris, Aix, Besançon, Bordeaux, Caen, Clermont, Dijon, Douai, Grenoble, Lyons, Montpellier, Poitiers, Rennes, Toulouse, Nancy. In addition to giving instruction, these faculties conduct examinations, and confer the degrees of bachelor, licentiate, and doctor.

(F.) ENGLAND.

In England popular education has made less progress than in any other Protestant country of Europe. The explanation of this fact is to be found in the conservative character of the people, and the aristocratic organization of society. It is only in recent years that the masses have become prominent. Hence, it has happened that, while popular education was left to individual effort and denominational zeal, the children of the wealthy and the noble have enjoyed the advantages of the great preparatory schools-Eton, Winchester, Westminster, St. Paul's, Merchant Taylors', Charterhouse, Harrow, Rugby, Shrewsbury, and Christ's Hospital.

These preparatory or endowed schools, which have been justly celebrated in English education, were founded, with three exceptions, in the sixteenth century. They are large boarding-schools, whose courses of study raise them to the rank of the French lyceum or the German gymnasium. In accordance with the conservative character of English institutions, it is but recently that these schools have been much affected by modern educational progress. At present they are losing their mediæval character before the pressure for reform; and

though Latin and Greek still remain the chief subjects of study, increasing attention is being paid to the mother-tongue, the natural sciences, and the modern languages. The methods of instruction are becoming less mechanical; and the principle of authority, which formerly repressed a spirit of independence, is now giving place to freedom of thought and investigation. Athletics are cultivated with great zeal. The system of fagging, which requires students of the lower classes to perform menial services for those of the upper classes, still exists. "The best friends of these schools," says Howard Staunton, "confess that they contain much that is pedantic, much that is puerile, much that is antiquated, much that is obsolete, much that is obstructive, and not a little that is barbarous; and that, like other English institutions, they are apt to confound stolidity with solidity. Let, then, abuses be removed, let absolute obscurantism cease, and let such improvements be adopted as commend themselves, not to superficial progress, but to the most exalted wisdom." In addition to these endowed schools, there are many other schools and colleges devoted to secondary instruction.

The Universities of Oxford and Cambridge, whose origin is lost in the darkness of the middle ages, are among the most celebrated in the world. They are similar in organization; Oxford comprising twenty-four separate colleges, and Cambridge seventeen. Each college has a separate organization of its own, presided over by a president, rector, or provost, while all are under a central or university government administered by a chancellor, in conjunction with a council elected by the several colleges. The universities are maintained by

munificent endowments, the gifts of benefactors and the founders of colleges. Candidates for graduation must reside in a college for three academic years; when, upon passing a satisfactory examination before the university examiners, they receive their degree. Oxford and Cambridge are both very conservative, and still merit in some degree the criticisms of Bacon and Milton. During the present century other institutions for superior instruction have been founded, chief among which is the University of London, created by royal charter in 1836.

Prior to the beginning of the present century, the education of the masses of England was almost entirely neglected. To Robert Raikes, the founder of the Sunday-school, belongs the honor of having first awakened an interest in popular education. This he did partly through his paper, the "Gloucester Journal," in which he maintained that ignorance was the principal source of vice among the people, and partly through his actual labors for the instruction of the neglected children of his town. His efforts led to the establishment of numerous Sunday-schools, which form the beginning of popular instruction. He died in 1811.

The labors of two other educators, following the efforts of Raikes, gave an additional impulse to popular instruction. These were Andrew Bell and Joseph Lancaster, who independently of each other invented the monitorial system of teaching. Bell, who was born at St. Andrews, Scotland, in 1753, went to India in 1787, where he was appointed superintendent of a school for the orphan children of British soldiers. Unable to procure suitable teachers, he fell upon the plan, sometimes

adopted in the native schools of India, of employing advanced pupils as instructors. As the plan succeeded beyond expectation, he published an account of it on his return to England, and in 1807 established in London a school in which the monitorial (or Madras) system was employed. The experiment was successful; and as many influential persons, especially among the clergy, became interested in the system, the National Society was formed in connection with the Church of England for the purpose of establishing schools throughout the British dominions. The work of this society, under the direction of Bell, was prosecuted with great vigor, and in less than a dozen years one thousand schools had been opened, with an attendance of more than two hundred thousand children.

This remarkable activity was due in part to the labors of Joseph Lancaster, a Quaker. Having established a school in London in 1798, he found it necessary to reduce his expenses; and, as a means of doing this, he hit upon the monitorial system which Bell had already employed at Madras. His school met with great popular favor, and soon numbered one thousand pupils. It was visited by the royal family, on which occasion the king said to Lancaster, "I wish that every child in my kingdom were able to read the Bible." In view of the popularity and success of the school, an association of Dissenters, known as the British and Foreign School Society, was organized for the promulgation of the system of Lancaster; and the rivalry between this and the National Society of the Established Church led to extraordinary efforts in founding popular schools.

It was not till 1818 that the English Government concerned itself about education. At that time a committee was appointed to inspect the public schools for the upper and middle classes, and report upon their condition. Many evils were exposed, and the way opened for subsequent reforms. The first annual grant for education was made in 1833. The movement toward popular education received a noteworthy impulse from the educational conference held in London in 1857 under the presidency of the Prince Consort. In 1858 a commission was appointed by Parliament to report upon the state of popular education. The interest thus manifested by the government in popular education culminated in 1870 in a statute which ordered that "there shall be provided for every school district a sufficient amount of accommodation in public elementary schools available for all the children resident in such district, for whose elementary education efficient and suitable provision is not otherwise made." School boards, elected by all tax-payers, including women, were established to carry out the provisions of this law; and they were further invested with authority to compel parents to send their children to school between the ages of five and thirteen. This new law has been very successful. A high percentage of attendance has been attained, and an able body of trained teachers provided ; and the present educational progress of England will compare favorably with that of any other Protestant country.

(G.) THE UNITED STATES.

In the United States the sovereignty is vested, not in the few, but in the many The masses are called