in Fig. 3: the fossil has been broken up, and its pieces have been more or less separated from each other, exactly as in the natural examples. By pursuing a similar line of research, M. Daubrée has succeeded in imitating a characteristic feature of the structure of large chains of FIG. 2.-Belemnites niger, B, closely inclosed by casting in the center of a prism of lead in two parts, only one of which is represented. The prism is to be subjected to the action of the hydraulic press perpendicularly to its larger sides. (Scale of one half.) mountains, which Saussure observed on Mont Blanc. The masonrywork of Mont Blanc, says this author, is divided into great leaves having their planes exactly parallel to each other, and parallel to the direction of the chain. He further satisfied himself that the leaves, FIG. 3.-Stretching out and truncation of the belemnite of the preceding figure by the action of the hydraulic press on the prism of lead in which it was incased. nearly vertical in the center of the mass, assumed inclined positions in their lateral parts, and dipped symmetrically toward the central axis, so as to present in their transverse section the form of a half-opened fan. Little Mont Blancs can be reproduced in miniature, with a structure like that described by Saussure, in this way: Take clay which has been previously well mixed and nearly dried, and cut into the form of a square prism; and, having put it between two square plates of the same dimensions as the base of the prism, subject it to the action of the hydraulic press. In the operation a beard (bavure) or overflow runs out from each of the four lateral faces, the expanding form of which, in consequence of the change of pressure, adjusts itself with the faces of the prism. The deformed mass exhibits on a transverse fracture an essentially schistous texture, which is thus disposed in all of the part inclosed between the plates, the leaves are nearly parallel to the two walls, but in the part which passes beyond the plates the leaves. bend over and diverge from the axis so as to be parallel to the two exterior surfaces, while they themselves separate more and more. The leafiness is especially marked near the two external surfaces; it is generally much less so toward the central part. This experiment furnishes a fac-simile (Fig. 4) of the leafy structure called fan-shaped. It remains to call attention to the consideration of the mechanical actions developed in the crust of the globe as the source of the heat-movements to which the metamorphism of rocks is due. M. Daubrée has been led by his experiments to conclude that such is the origin of this phenomenon. The mechanical action which is required to make rocks schistous is enough to heat them to a considerable degree. It is known that a very slight elevation of temperature is sufficient to produce chemical reactions in the depths of rocky masses. The quarry-water, with which all the rocks are impregnated, and that which finds its way to them through fissures, could give rise to reactions which might be prolonged for a protracted period.-La Nature. FIG. 4.-Production of the fanshaped structure in a mass of clay forced to flow out from between two parallel plates. The horizontal pressure of the plates makes it take on first a leafy structure, then the fan-shaped structure as soon as it has passed beyond the limits of the plates. (One third the natural size.) THE VIEWS OF PRIMITIVE MARRIAGE. BY LORIMER FISON. HE theory now to be considered was first advanced by Mr. McLennan, in his work entitled "Primitive Marriage." It will be found stated in the following words in his "Studies in Ancient History,"* a reprint, with additions, of the former work : "We believe this restriction on marriage (i. e., exogamy) to be connected with the practice in early times of female infanticide, which, * "Studies in Ancient History," comprising a reprint of "Primitive Marriage." By John Ferguson McLennan, M. A., LL. D. Quaritch, London, 1876. rendering women scarce, led at once to polyandry within the tribe, and to the capturing of women from without."* "If it can be shown, firstly, that exogamous tribes exist or have existed, and, secondly, that in rude times the relations of separate tribes are uniformly or almost uniformly hostile, we have found a set of circumstances in which men could get wives only by capturing them-a social condition in which capture would be the necessary preliminary to marriage."† Further on he remarks, "We now confidently submit that the conditions required for this inference have been amply established...."‡ After a careful study of Mr. McLennan's work, I am not sure that I have grasped his meaning here. The "tribe" of which he speaks must have been in the first place endogamous, because he supposes it to have become exogamous as the result of the practice of female infanticide. Here, then, we have an endogamous tribe becoming exogamous. But, in the table of contents to Chapter VII. we read, “ Conversion of an endogamous tribe into an exogamous tribe inconceivable." Turning to that part of the body of the work here indicated, we find the statement to be that the "reconversion of an endogamous tribe into an exogamous tribe is inconceivable." But this does not help us. For there can be no difficulty in conceiving that which we have before our eyes at the present day in almost all savage peoples on the face of the earth-a tribe endogamous qua tribe-that is, marrying within its own limits, and yet split up into exogamous intermarrying divisions, classes, gentes, septs, clans, thums, keelis, or whatsoever else they may be called; so that the law of marriage is distinctly exogamous. The confusion here evidently arises from want of precision. in the use of the terms endogamy, exogamy, and tribe. Let us know the exact boundaries of the group to which they are applied, and then we shall be clear as to their meaning. Again, turning to the general theory as set forth in Mr. McLennan's words already quoted, we find the following sequence: 1. Female infanticide was the general practice among the "primary hordes," and resulted in a scarcity of women, so causing polyandry and marriage by capture. 2. The tribe having thus taken to capturing women, acquired the habit of so doing, and became exogamous. 3. Exogamy having thus grown into a law, and neighboring tribes being, as a rule, hostile to one another, men could get their wives no otherwise than by capture. Which may be fairly summed up as follows: Female infanticide causes marriage by capture. Marriage by capture causes exogamy. Exogamy causes marriage by capture. I can not suppose this to have been Mr. McLennan's meaning, but * "Studies," etc., p. 111. + Ibid., p. 42. Ibid., p. 109. I have failed to perceive any other. Two things, however, are clear, as forming the basis on which his theory stands: 1. That "female infanticide" was the general practice among the "primary hordes "-in other words, that they killed many more female children than male. 2. That exogamous tribes existed under "circumstances in which men could only get wives by capturing them "-in other words, that these tribes could not marry anywhere within their own boundaries, and were consequently compelled to capture their wives, there being no possibility of friendly intermarriage with other tribes. Let us now test this basis, and see if it be secure: It is well known that infanticide is a very common practice among savage and barbaric tribes, and the opinion seems to prevail that "female infanticide"the killing of female children rather than male-is the general rule. This opinion is undoubtedly correct as to many tribes; but I venture to suggest that it needs reconsideration as far as the lower savages are concerned, and it is with them that the theory now under consideration has to do. I think it will be found that the practice is far less common with them than it is among the tribes who are more advanced, and for this opinion I will now endeavor to show cause. Savages are perfectly logical people in their own way, and do not act without a motive, which, to their minds at least, is a sufficient one. So thoroughly have I been convinced of this by my fifteen years' residence among them, and close observation of their ways, that I do not hesitate to affirm that, whenever their acts appear capricious to us, we may be quite sure we do not understand their motives. The savage has no hesitation in killing his infant children, whether male or female, if they be in his way; but he does not kill any one of them for the mere sake of killing, and he certainly would not kill his daughters rather than his sons without a sufficient motive. Is such a motive to be found among the lower savages? The reasons usually given for female infanticide are thus stated by Sir John Lubbock and Mr. McLennan : "Female children became a source of weakness in various ways. They ate and did not hunt. They weakened their mothers when young, and when grown up were a temptation to surrounding tribes." To the same effect Mr. McLennan observes: "To tribes surrounded by enemies and unaided by art, contending with the difficulties of subsistence, sons were a source of strength, both for defense and in quest of food, daughters a source of weakness."† The motive here advanced is, that females are an incumbrance to savages, and for this four reasons are given : 1. "They weaken their mothers when young." "Studies," etc., p. 111. 2. "They eat and do not hunt"-i. e., they are food-consumers, but not food-providers. 3. They are "a source of weakness " as regards defense—i. e., they are in the way in war-time. 4. They are "a temptation to surrounding tribes." I think it can be shown that not one of these reasons is of any force as regards the lower savages. 1. That children "weaken their mothers when young" may be a reason for infanticide, but it is no reason for killing female infants rather than male. 2. The assertion that women "eat and do not hunt" can not apply to the lower savages. On the contrary, whether among the ruder agricultural tribes, or those who are dependent on supplies gathered "from forest and from flood," the women are food-providers who supply more than they consume, and render most valuable service into the bargain. As a general rule they are the hardest workers and the most useful members of the community in times of peace. 3. And certainly they are not "a source of weakness" as regards defense. They are perfectly capable of taking care of themselves * in war-time; and, so far from being an incumbrance upon the warriors, they will fight, if need be, as bravely as the men, and with even greater ferocity. I could give some shocking proofs of this which have come under my own observation. 4. Finally, that they are "a temptation to surrounding tribes" does not appear to be a sufficient reason for killing them. They are far too valuable a possession to be cast away merely because the neighbors covet them. We do not find the Caffres exterminating their cattle because they are "a temptation to the surrounding tribes." It is among the more advanced tribes that the motives for female infanticide are found, and I believe the practice exists also to a greater extent than among the lower savages. Thus, where a costly dower has to be given with a girl in marriage, female infanticide is known to be very common. A daughter there is a special cause of impoverishment to her parents, whereas a son is a cause of enrichment. Here we have a motive which seems to act with considerable power, but it does not exist among the lower savages. For with them the dower-where one is given-is provided by the bridegroom's kinsmen and presented to the parents of the girl. Here, then, the conditions are reversed. It is the girl who is a cause of enrichment to her *They who are accustomed to the ways of civilized women only can hardly believe what savage women are capable of even when they may well be supposed to be at their weakest. For instance, an Australian tribe on the march scarcely takes the trouble to halt for so slight a performance as a childbirth. The newly-born infant is wrapped in opossum-skins, the march is resumed, and the mother trudges on with the rest. Indeed, as is well known, among many tribes, it is the father who is put to bed, while the mother goes about her work as if nothing had happened. |