158

VENTRILOQUISM-STAMMERING.

are reported by travellers to occur in the language of the Hottentots and in those of other African tribes.

The several sounds and tones of language can even be imitated by artificial contrivances. When the sound of the voice is made to pass into a cylindrical tube, before which the hand is held, and then withdrawn, the sound of b is produced; and if the tube be a pipe with a membranous tongue, the sound of v is produced. Various speaking machines, by attention to such principles, have been produced; the most perfect of these is that contrived by Faber. The automaton invented by Faber has a singing The difference in the height of the notes is made by varying the width of the glottis without tension of the cords. In this respect it is hardly an exact model of the human organal voice.

voice extending over twelve notes.

The singular faculty possessed by ventriloquists has engaged much of the attention of physiologists. Many different views as to the nature of this kind of speech have been at various times brought forward.

One of the oldest and most common ideas on this subject is, that ventriloquism consists in speech produced during inspiration. It is unquestionably possible, though not without difficulty, to articulate during inspiration, and the sounds so produced have some resemblance to the tones uttered by a ventriloquist.

A more recent view of the nature of ventriloquism is, that it is a mere imitation, produced in the larynx, of the various modifications which the voice ordinarily suffers from distance, by the interposition of a partition, as if the individual were enclosed in a narrow space,—in a trunk, a cask, or the like. This view has been supported with much ingenuity by Magendie.

The distinguished German physiologist, Müller, has adopted an idea on this subject which coincides better with the original name of this artifice. He says that the notes of ventriloquism are produced by inspiring very deeply, so as to protrude the abdominal contents by the deep descent of the diaphragm, and the diaphragm being retained in this position, by speaking through a very narrow glottis, expiration is performed very slowly by the lateral walls of the chest alone. He affirms that the quality which the voice has in speaking through an expiration thus performed, is that peculiar to ventriloquism, and that sounds may be thus uttered which resemble the voice of a person calling from a distance.

A very large share of the artifice practiced by the ventriloquist, particularly in the imitation of voices coming from particular directions, lies in the deception of other senses besides the hearing. The directions in which sounds reach the ear are never very easily distinguished; and when the attention is drawn to a different point, the imagination is very apt to regard the sounds produced as coming from that quarter.

Of the imperfections of speech, stammering is that which has been chiefly investigated; and it lies in a momentary inability to pronounce a consonant or vowel, or to connect it with the preceding sounds. This impediment may occur either in the commencement or in the iddle of a word. When the impediment arises in the middle of a word, the commencement of the word is often several times repeated. Hence stammering is apt to be defined as the successive repetition of one sound. The repetition of the commencement of the word, however, is not the essential defect which constitutes stammering; it merely marks repeated attempts to overcome the difficulty. Neither is it correct to say that the difficulty in stammering lies chiefly in pronouncing the consonants, for the impediment most frequently occurs in the case of vowels. The best account which has been given of the nature of stammering is, that it depends on

DUMB SHOULD BE TAUGHT TO ARTICULATE.

139

the momentary closure of the glottis, so that the passage of the air necessary to the pronunciation of the particular sound is arrested. In persons severely affected with this impediment, there are manifest indications of the struggle at the glottis, occasioned by the impediment to expiration, in congestion of blood in the head and in the veins of the neck. The real cause of stammering, therefore, must be described as an unusual movement in the larynx, associated with the articulate movements. In short, stammering is a temporary spasmodic affection of the glottis. For the prevention of stammering, the proper plan is to endeavour to bring the associated movements of the larynx with the organs of speech more under the command of the will. To sing words is one method of obtaining this effect; since in singing more attention is directed to the action of the larynx than in ordinary speaking. Moreover, it is observed that persons who stammer pronounce better in singing than in mere speaking. The raising of the point of the tongue towards the palate has some effect in counteracting this habit, and this elevation of the tongue seems to have been the object of the plan practiced by the ancients, of placing bodies such as pebbles under the tongue. Müller recommends for the cure of stammering that the patient should practice himself in reading sentences in which all the letters which cannot be pronounced without a vowel sound-namely, the explosive consonants, b, d, g, p, t, and k—are omitted, and only those consonants included which are susceptible of an accompanying intonation of the voice. He also directs that all those letters should be very much prolonged. He says that by this means a mode of pronunciation will be attained in which the articulation is constantly combined with vocalization, and the glottis, consequently, never closed.

As already mentioned, dumbness is dependent, not on the defect of the organs of speech, but on the absence of hearing. By assiduous efforts deaf-mutes learn the movements of articulation by means of their sight. The speech which they acquire is most commonly harsh, owing to the want of the sense of hearing to regulate their articulation. There was no discovery hailed with greater interest than that of teaching the dumb to speak; and undoubtedly, harsh though the sounds be-and yet they are not always disagreeably harsh-there can hardly be a greater triumph of human art. It will hardly be believed that some innovators on the education of the deaf and dumb seek to abolish the practice of teaching them to articulate, on the ground that their harsh speech is unfitted for the uses of society, and that they can communicate with their fellows sufficiently by other means, as by speaking on the fingers and by writing. This is a most unwarrantable view of the case of these unhappy persons, particularly when they belong, as by far the major part of them must do, to the labouring classes of society. We have only to consider how many persons one in the condition of a labourer must meet with daily who cannot write, or read writing, to be satisfied that this innovation on the education of the deaf and dumb should be at once put down in every institution in which it has gained a footing. There is every reason to believe, that in proportion as a knowledge of the mode in which the sounds of the human voice in speech are produced becomes better understood, the artificial articulation of the deaf and dumb will become less and less harsh and disagreeable. Comparative Physiology of Voice.-Organs of voice occur among inferior animals, in the mammalian tribes, birds, and reptiles. In mammals the organs of voice bear a close resemblance to those of man. In birds considerable modifications occur on these organs. In reptiles the apparatus of voice is of greater simplicity.

Voice of Mammals.-Among mammals some are mute, and yet these are not always deficient in those parts of the larynx which are most essential to voice.

Among the orders which compose the class mammalia, the cetaceans, consisting chiefly of the whale tribe, are often described as mute. These animals, however, are not mute altogether, but possess only a single lowing note, or at the utmost they have the power of simply bellowing. There are two distinct sections of cetaceans. The first includes what have been termed the herbivorous cetaceans, such as the sea-cow, the representative of the popular mermaid, and the dugong The second order includes the common cetaceans, popularly known as blowers. The act of blowing, from which they derive their name, consists in the expulsion of water by the nostrils; that is, along

geons of London.

a, pyramidal position of larynx; c, pharynx; d, laryngeal cavities laid open.

with their prey they receive a large quantity of water into the mouth, and while the mouth remains closed they blow out this superfluous water by a hole in the upper part of the head.

This expulsion of water is produced by means of a peculiar arrangement of the veil of the palate. The water accumulates in a sac situated at the external orifice of the cavity of the nose, whence, by the compression of powerful muscles, it is violently expelled through a narrow aperture pierced on the summit of the head. By this contrivance these animals throw forth those jets of water which are seen by mariners at a great distance. The larynx has a pyramidal form, and penetrates into the posterior portion of the nostrils to receive air, and conduct it to the lungs, without the animal being obliged to raise its head and mouth above water for the purpose. As there are no projecting lamina in the glottis, they can hardly be said to have the proper organs of voice, and thus the noise they make may be described as a simple vehemence of expiration.

The larynx, however, in these animals is highly developed in other respects.

Among the animals commonly described as mute is the giraffe or camel-leopard, termed by naturalists Cameleo-pardalis giraffa. In the giraffe the vocal ligaments appear to be absent.

The armadillo (Dasypus) is another of the mammalians described as mute. The only peculiarity of the larynx which has been observed is, that the epiglottis, or valvelike cartilage of the larynx, is bilobed. The armadillo, it will be remembered, is remarkable among mammals for the scaly, hard, bony shell, composed of pavement-like compartments, which cover the head, the body, and even the tail. These animals belong to the order termed Edentata. They live in burrows, which they excavate. To the edentata also belong the ant-eaters (Myrmecophage), which are regarded as mute. In the same order is found the sloth (Bradypus tridactylus). In this animal, however, vocal ligaments are found, and the windpipe is convoluted. The voice is a

VOICE OF RUMINANTS AND PACHYDERMATA.

141

plaintive melody, consisting of an ascending and descending scale of the hexachord.

Among the Rodentia, or gnawers, the common porcupine of Europe is mute. In this animal it has been ascertained that there are no vocal ligaments.

Such, then, are a few examples of the animals in the class Mammalia which are mute, or nearly mute.

In the order Ruminants we find animals possessed of a sonorous voice, exemplified particularly in the ox. In the ox the larynx is well developed; there are no superior vocal ligaments, but the inferior or true vocal ligaments are strong, and nearly an inch in length; the windpipe consists of fifty-two cartilaginous rings, that is, nearly three times as many as their number in man. The voice is sonorous, intense-pitched in C256 vibrations in a second.

The sheep belongs to the same order of quadrupeds. The larynx differs from that of the ox only in dimensions. The voice is guttural, pitched in F= 341 vibrations in a second.

LARYNX OF CAMEL LAID

OPEN-Bishop.

a, epiglottis; b, superior

To the same order belongs the camel (Camelus Bactrianus). In the camel the larynx is well developed; the superior vocal ligaments are present, and the inferior vocal ligaments are strong. The voice is grave, but seldom exercised.

In the Pachydermata,

or thick-skinned animals,
there are many species pos-
sessed of a sonorous voice.
Among these are the horse,
the ass, the hog, the rhi-
noceros, and the elephant.
In the horse the larynx is
highly developed, and the
windpipe has as many car-
tilaginous rings as that of
the ox. The superior vocal
ligaments are not promi-
nent. Above the junction
of the proper vocal liga-

vocal cords; c, inferior; ments, between that and
d, arytenoid cartilages; the epiglottis, there is an
e, vertical ridge; h, tu-
bercle; f, trachea. oval cavity, and on the
posterior surface of the
epiglottis there is a groove, furnished at its base
with a semi-lunar membrane. To this membrane
much effect has been ascribed in the production of
the peculiar neighing of the horse. It is doubtful,
however, if this peculiar sound be so much depen-
dent on this membrane as has been believed.

LARYNX OF HORSE-Bishop.

a, epiglottis; b, semi-lunar membrane; c, aperture at base of the epiglottis; d, groove; e, ventricles; f, arytenoids; g,

inferior vocal cords; h, trachea.

In the ass the larynx is also well developed. In the windpipe the rings are spiral. The bray of the ass-which seems greatly to depend upon the presence of two large sacs placed between the vocal ligaments and the internal surface of the thyroid-is well known; it has a range of about five tones.

In the mule the larynx resembles that of the ass. The voice is a species of bray, more resembling that of the ass than the neighing of the horse. The tapir (Tapir Americanus) has some peculiarities in its larynx. It has, however, superior vocal ligaments, which are short and distinct, and inferior vocal ligaments, which are strong. The voice is a species of whistle.

The hog (Sus scrofa) has also some peculiarities in its larynx; its voice, as is well known, is a grunting, discordant sound.

The rhinoceros is remarkable for having the superior vocal cords very prominent.

In elephants the larynx is largely developed. The superior vocal ligaments are indistinct; the inferior or proper vocal ligaments are strong. The windpipe exhibits thirty rings, which are often partially subdivided, as in the case of the bronchial ramifications. The voice, aided by the trunk, is intense, and of a grave pitch.

a

C

Under the head of Marsupial animals, we find the kangaroo and the opossum.

A.

d

B.

A. LATERAL VIEW OF LARYNX
OF DIDELPHIS OPOSSUM.

a, thyroid cartilage; b, cri-
coid; c, crico-thyroidliga-
ment; d, trachea.

B. POSTERIOR VIEW OF THE

SAME.

In the kangaroo (Macropus major) several peculiarities occur in the larynx. In particular, the vocal cords are membranous, and fold upon themselves, so that they cannot be stretched by the arytenoids. The voice

when in pain consists of a piteous
moan. In the opossum (Didelphis
opossum) the vocal ligaments are very
short, hence the voice is acute. The
opossum purrs like a cat.

In the order Carnivora we find ex-
amples of animals with intense voice.

In the lion (Felis leo) the larynx is well developed; the vocal ligaments, both superior and inferior, are present; the superior being prominent. The ventricles of the larynx are deep, forming a sac between the upper and under vocal ligaments. The windpipe is possessed of fifty cartilaginous rings. The voice is grave, highly intense, the roar terrific.

c, cricoid; e, laryngo-tracheal ligament; d, trachea.

The tiger (Felis tigris) has a larynx resembling that of the lion, the superior vocal ligaments being very prominent. The voice of the tiger is more acute than that of the lion. It purrs like the cat. The leopard and the cat belong to the same genus, Felis leopardus and Felis catus. These two animals, like the rest of the feline tribe, have the superior vocal ligaments well developed. It is supposed that by these superior vocal ligaments the purring sound is produced. The voice in both animals is a mewing-they have by night a melancholy cry.

LARYNX OF CAT.

a, tongue; b, epiglottis; c, superior vocal cords; inferior vocal cords.

In the order Quadrumana, to which the apes and monkeys belong, the essential form of the organ of voice does not vary much, but peculiarities occur in the resounding walls. Thus in the ourang-outang a sac exists between the thyroid cartilage and hyoid bone, and in the mandrill, pavian, and macacos, membranous sacs are observed below the hyoid bone. In the Mycetes, or howling apes of the New World, the apparatus for the resonance of the voice is greatest. In these the hyoid bone and the thyroid