human economy, and more particularly in his application of this doctrine to the explanation of diseases. Galen had recorded many facts which had been observed before his time, by Erasistratus, Herophilus, and others, relative to the nervous system, considered as the organ of sense and voluntary motion, and to these he had added several new observations and experiments of his own. But it was not till the publication of the elaborate works of Willis and Vieussens, that the structure, distribution, and functions of that system seem to have become the objects of very general attention among medical men. These authors pointed out many examples of sympathies existing between different parts of the human body through the medium of the nervous system, in the states both of health and disease; and Mayow, Baglivi, and Pacchioni, endeavoured to account for some of these sympathetic actions, by a contractile power which they erroneously supposed to be lodged in the fibres of the dura mater. It was reserved for Hoffmann, however, to take a comprehensive view of the nervous system, not only as the organ of sense and motion, but also as the common centre by which all the different parts of the animal economy are connected together, and through which they mutually influence each other. He was, accordingly, led to regard all those alterations in the structure and functions of this economy, which constitute the state of disease, as having their primary origin in affections of the nervous system, and as depending, therefore, upon a deranged state of the imperceptible and contractile motions in the solids, rather than upon changes induced in the chemical composition of the fluid parts of the body."-Pp. 195, 196.

Boerhaave's motto,-" Simplex Veri sigillum,"-stands in glaring contrast with his system. In practice he was a genuine follower of Hippocrates and nature; in theory at once Peripatetic, and Cartesian, and Leibnitian, Iatro-chemist and Mechanician, Humorist and Solidist, his system presents only a plausible conciliation of all conflicting hypotheses. The eclecticism of Boerhaave, destitute of real unity, had no principle of stability, and was especially defective in relation to the vital powers. It was accordingly soon essentially modified by his disciples, and an approximation quietly effected to the simpler but more comprehensive principles of Hoffmann. De Gorter, Winter, Kaau Boerhaave, and Gaubius, all co-operated to this result; but the pupil who hazarded the most important changes on the system. of his master, and who, indeed, contributed perhaps more than any other individual to the improvement of medical science in general, was Haller. In the development of his great doctrine of irritability, Haller is, indeed, not the pupil of Boerhaave, but a follower of Hoffmann and Glisson. Dr Thomson's history of this doctrine is one of the most valuable portions of his work; and his account of the celebrated controversy touching the

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principle of vital and involuntary motion between Whytt and Haller, will be found not more attractive to professional physicians, than to all who take any interest in the philosophy of animated nature.

Having thus indicated Cullen's point of departure, Dr Thomson now guides us along the steps of his advance. Under the heads of Physiology, Pathology, and Therapeutics, a detailed account is given of Cullen's system, in its common and in its peculiar doctrines. In this, the principal portion of the work, is exhibited, for the first time, (and chiefly from manuscript sources,) a comprehensive view of Cullen's services to medical science; much original information is supplied; new light is thrown upon points hitherto obscure; many prevalent misconceptions are rectified; and some unworthy, we are sorry to add, hitherto successful, plagiarisms are exposed. Cullen's reputation had suffered from misrepresentation, ignorance, and neglect; but never was the honour of an author more triumphantly vindicated by his biographer. We regret our inability to do any justice to this admirable survey; which is, indeed, not more valuable as an appreciation of Cullen's merits, than as a supplement to the history of modern medicine. An outline of its contents would be of little interest or value; and even an outline would exceed our limits.

To the history of Cullen's doctrines in relation to those of previous theorists, Dr Thomson subjoins an account,-and the best we have ever seen,-of the contemporary progress of medicine in the schools of Montpellier and Paris. On this, however, we cannot touch. Our limits also preclude us from following him in his important discussion on medical education. We warmly recommend this part of the volume to those interested in the subject. A curious letter of Adam Smith (prior to the publicacation of his Wealth of Nations) on Universities and Degrees, will be admired for its ability by those who dissent from his well-known doctrine upon these points. We regret that we cannot make room for this very characteristic production, which is now for the first time given to the public. Its praise of the Scottish Universities, and its opinion as to Visitations, are particularly worthy of notice. The results of the late Royal Commission of Visitation will by some, perhaps, be viewed as affording a good commentary on Dr Smith's text. "In the present state of the Scotch Universities, I do most sincerely look upon them

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as, in spite of all their faults, without exception the best seminaries of learning that are to be found anywhere in Europe." [Smith would not say this now; and he said it then, probably, in utter ignorance of the Dutch and German Universities.] "They are, perhaps, upon the whole, as unexceptionable as any public institutions of that kind, which all contain in their very nature the seeds and causes of negligence and corruption, have ever been, or are ever likely to be. That, however, they are still capable of amendment, and even of considerable amendment, I know very well; and a Visitation is, I believe, the only proper means of procuring them this amendment. But before any wise man would apply for the appointment of so arbitrary a tribunal, in order to improve what is already, upon the whole, very well, he ought certainly to know, with some degree of certainty, first, who are likely to be appointed visitors; and, secondly, what plan of reformation those visitors are likely to follow."-Besides the medical matters we have been able to notice, this volume contains various other topics of general interest. The letters alone which it supplies of distinguished individuals form an important addition to the literary history of Scotland during last century. David Hume, Adam Smith, Lord Kames, Duhamel, William Hunter, Black, Senac, Fothergill, are among Cullen's most frequent correspondents.

We look forward to the concluding volume with no little. curiosity. It will trace of course the influence of Cullen's speculations on the subsequent progress of medicine, and, we hope, continue (what Dr Thomson has already proved himself so well qualified to execute) the history of this science to the present day.

EDUCATION.

I. ON THE STUDY OF MATHEMATICS,

AS AN EXERCISE OF MIND.*

(JANUARY, 1836.)

Thoughts on the Study of Mathematics as a part of a Liberal Education. By the Rev. WILLIAM WHEWELL, M.A., Fellow and Tutor of Trinity College. 8vo. Cambridge: 1835.

WE saw the announcement of this pamphlet with no ordinary interest, from the subject,-from the place of publication,-and from the author.

The subject is one of great importance in the science of education. Whether, and to what extent, the study of mathematics

* [In French by M. Peisse; in Italian by S. Lo Gatto; in German, as a separate pamphlet, under the title,-"Ueber ben Werth und Unwerth der Mathematik, als Mittel der hoehern geistigen Ausbildung, Cassel, 1836." To this last there is an able preface; and the translator publishes the paper from "" an intimate and resistless conviction that the plan of study in some of our new gymnasia comprehends too great a variety of objects, and, especially, lavishes too much time and application on mathematical instruction ;—an instruction without interest to the majority of students, which, at the same time, pays no regard to the differences of natural disposition and future destination, overloads the memory, and compromises the development of the higher mental and moral capacities, while, more especially, it stunts the evolution of that free and independent activity of thought on which a utility for life and a susceptibility for its noblest avocations depend.”—M. Peisse has likewise, in his preface, convincingly maintained the same position. This was also eloquently supported, with reference

conduces to the development of the higher faculties, is a question which, though never adequately discussed, has been very confidently and very variously decided. The stream of opinions, and the general practice of the European schools and universities, allow to that study, at best, only a subordinate utility as a mean of liberal education—that is, an education in which the individual is cultivated, not as an instrument towards some ulterior end, but as an end unto himself alone; in other words, an education, in which his absolute perfection as a man, and not merely his relative dexterity as a professional man, is the scope immediately in view. But, at the same time, it cannot be denied, that signs of a revolutionary tendency in popular opinion, touching the objects and the end of education, are, in this nation at least, becoming daily more and more obtrusive; and as the extended study of mathematics is that mainly proposed, in lieu of the ancient branches of discipline which our innovators would retrench, a professed inquiry, like the present, into the influence of this study on the intellectual habits, comes invested, independently of its general importance, with a certain local and temporary interest.

But the centre from which it proceeds, enhances also the interest of the publication. In opposition to the general opinion of the learned world,-in opposition to the practice of all other universities, past or present,-in opposition even to its oaths and statutes, and to the intention of its founders and legislators, the University of Cambridge stands alone in now making mathematical science the principal object of the whole liberal education it affords; and mathematical skill the sole condition of the one tripos of its honours, and the necessary passport to the other:—

to this article, by S. Vallauri before, among other auditors, his Majesty of Sardinia; "Thomae Vallaurii De vitiis in puerili institutione vitandis oratio. Habita in Regio Taurinensi Athenaeo, III. nonas Novembres an. M.DCCC.LII."

This article was attacked in a pamphlet published by Professor Chevallier of Durham, in the course of the year when it was published; but his opposition being either mere assertion or mere mistake, I do not find it necessary to say anything in reply. In fact, his defence of "The Study of Mathematics as conducive to the development of the Intellectual Powers," may suffice to show how little, even by an able advocate, can be alleged in vindication of their uti. lity in this respect at all.

Certain statements in the criticism have also been controverted by Professor Boole in his very able "Mathematical Analysis of Logic," in 1847. I shall consider these in a note. (P. 277.)

On Dr Whewell's rejoinder, sce the end of the article.]