ANCHOR

proportion to their length than smaller ones, that is, the weight increases faster than the cubes of the dimensions.

When an anchor is left behind, it is recovered either by lifting it by the buoy rope, or, where that is not possible, by sweeping for it; which is dragging a hawser, hung between two boats, slowly over the bottom till it catches the upper fluke, by which the anchor is then weighed.

When one anchor is down the ship is said to be at single anchor; when two are down, the ship is generally moored. [MOORED; CABLE; BUOY.] Ships rarely ride by more than two anchors; in bad weather a third is often let go under foot, as a precaution in case of one of the cables parting.

When the anchor is dragged by the pulling of the cable, it is said to come home. When the cable gets twisted round the anchor or stock, the anchor is said to be. foul. The anchor is sometimes hove up without one of the flukes, which has either been fixed in a cleft of a rock and wrenched off by the force of weighing, or been snapped off by striking against a point of rock in its rapid descent.

When the ship is at single anchor, the wind or tide may carry her over the anchor; if the water is deep, she may so drag the cable as to foul the anchor, in which case it may not hold again: if the water is very shallow, she may get upon the anchor, the fluke entering the ship's bottom, or she may break the shank by striking upon it. Keeping the ship clear of her anchor is, therefore, an important, as it is also a nice point of seamanship.

When the anchor is lifted out of the ground, it is said to be aweigh; when hove up to the surface of the water, it is awash. The anchor being hove up by the cable only to the hawse holes, is lifted by the ring to the cathead: this is called catting it. The fluke next the ship's side is then lifted up to its resting-place, called the bill board: it is now said to be fished. When the ship is fairly at sea, the ring is lashed close up to the cathead, and the fluke brought close to the ship's side, or inside the bulwark, and the cable and buoy rope unbent: the anchor is then secured.

ANCILE

of a collar used for a lock-gate where it rests entirely in the wall.

Anchorage. Ground fit to hold a ship's anchor, so that she may ride safely. The ground best suited for this purpose is hard sand, or stiff clay; and the best position is that which is land-locked, or out of the tide. The harbour dues paid by ships for casting anchor, are also called anchorage.

Anchorite (Gr. ἀναχωρητής, from ἀναχωρέω, I retreat, or withdraw). More properly, anachoret; a hermit, or person who has retired from the world with the purpose of devoting himself entirely to meditation and prayer. Such was the case with many of the early Christians, beginning, perhaps, with such as fled from the persecutions of Decius and Diocletian. The adoption of perfect solitude was essential to the character of an anchorite: but they were not necessarily bound by vows. The origin of this class of religionists preceded that of the Cœnobites, or monks living in societies; but in later times the monks used frequently to leave their monasteries, with the permission of their superior, and devote themselves for a time, or for their whole lives, to the solitude of anchorites.

Anchovy. [ENGRAULIS.]

Anchusa (Gr. &yxovoa). A Boraginaceous genus of Southern Europe and the East, which yields the alkanet, A. tinctoria, a dye plant, now sometimes called Alkanna tinctoria. The root, which is thick in proportion to the size of the plant, is the part used, and yields a red dye readily extracted by oil and spirits. It is said to be also used for colouring some of the mixtures dignified with the name of port wine.

Anchusic Acid, Anchusine. The red colouring matter of alkanet root. It is soluble in oils and fats.

Anchylosis (Gr. ἀγκύλωσις, from ἄγκος, α bend or hollow). A stiff, immoveable, or bent joint.

Ancient Demesne. In Law, all lands which, having been in possession of Edward the Confessor, and from him having passed to William the Conqueror, and named in Doomsday Book as Terra Regis, are said to be held in ancient demesne. The tenure is peculiar, resembling copyhold in some respects.

Ancients (Fr. anciens). Gentlemen of the Inns of Court and Chancery. The Inns of Chancery consist of ancients, and students or clerks. The ancients of Gray's Inn are the oldest barristers, and those of the Middle Temple are those who have passed their readings.

ANCIENTS, COUNCIL OF. In French History, one of the two assemblies composing the legis lative body in 1795. It consisted of 250 members, and derived its name from each of them being at least forty years of age. It was put an end to by the revolution of the 18th Brumaire.

ANCIPITAL

while it remained in Rome, the city could never be taken. Its figure was that of an oval compressed in the middle. The legend adds that Numa entrusted the care of it to the Salii, or priests of Mars, in whose temple it was placed, and that he had eleven more shields made to exactly the same pattern, in order to prevent the genuine one from being distinguished and stolen. Every year, on March 1st and for many successive days, these ancilia were carried round the city by the Salii, with solemn dances and music.

Ancipital (Lat. anceps, two-edged). When anything is compressed, with the two opposite edges thin. It is chiefly applied in Botany to leaves and stems.

Ancistrocladeæ (Gг. ǎукισтрov, a hook, and kλádos, a branch). A natural order of Exogens, containing only the genus Ancistrocladus, an Indian climbing plant, of botanical interest only.

Ancona. An old Venetian term used to express a picture, image, or altar-piece; it occurs in old documents, and is a corruption of the Greek einwv, an image, picture, or portrait. (Fiorillo, Geschichte der Zeichnenden Künste, &c., vol. ii. p. 6, Göttingen, 1801.)

Andalusite. An anhydrous silicate of alumina, named after the province of Andalusia, in Spain, where it was first noticed. It may be distinguished from Felspar by its greater hardness and infusibility. It occurs in slightly rhombic four-sided prisms, sometimes in a compact form with a granular or columnar structure, of a reddish colour passing into pale grey, with a vitreous lustre, and is transparent, or translucent, at the edges. Andalusite is found most frequently in micaceous schist, and in gneiss; less frequently in granite, serpentine, and quartz rock, in Aberdeenshire, Banffshire, the Shetlands, Donegal and Co. Wicklow in Ireland, the Tyrol, Saxony, Moravia, Bavaria, Siberia, Connecticut, Massachusetts, &c.

Andante (Ital. going). In Music, is a direction for the time, or rather for the style in which a piece is to be taken. It is moderate, rather slow, but distinct and flowing.

Andes. This magnificent chain, including some of the loftiest mountains of the globe, rises from the shores of the Pacific Ocean, and runs parallel to the South American coast, commencing at Cape Horn and reaching to the Isthmus of Darien. At first, a single narrow range for a distance of 2500 miles, it then for another 2000 miles (the rest of the distance) becomes triple, the three parallel ridges being connected at intervals by narrow cross ridges forming knots, generally remarkable for extremely lofty mountain peaks, high table lands, and plains and elevated lakes. Near these knots the great rivers of South America take their rise. In absolute length no single chain in the earth approaches the Andes, and only a few of the higher peaks of the Himalayan chain rise higher above the sea level.

ANDESINE

portions, of which the two most to the south (terminating the Bolivian Andes) are of extraordinary elevation, and are connected with the lofty plateau and lakes mentioned in the article America. From these plains rise the higher elevations, attaining the height of about 25,000 feet on the eastern or interior range, and about 22,000 feet on the western or coast range. The snow line of the chain in this latitude is about 17,000 feet. To the north the Andes of Peru are less elevated, and terminate in the knot of Loxa, whence rise the principal sources of the Amazons river, under the name of Marañon. This point is less than 8000 feet above the sea, and is one of the lowest in the chain until we approach the Isthmus of Darien. Beyond it the mountain peaks rise again to upwards of 20,000 feet, the cone of Chimborazo towering over all in the neighbourhood. This part is called the Andes. of Quito. Further north the mountains are more distributed and somewhat less lofty.

There are many passes across the Andes, but they are mostly at high levels, and only accessible at certain seasons. On the eastern side the slope is more gradual than on the western, and terminates in plains of greater elevation, or in flanking ranges of hill or mountain. In the Bolivian Andes the passes are from 14,000 to 16,000 feet above the sea.

Very many of the higher peaks of the Andes are conical and volcanic, but only a few are active volcanos. Of these Cotopaxi, near Quito in the Andes of Quito, is one of those that has most frequently been described in modern times. Its height is estimated at 18,880 feet. This and the still higher elevation of Chimborazo (21,420 feet) are situated one or two degrees south of the equator. Pichincha is the name of another of the principal elevations, celebrated for having served as a signal in the measurement of an arc of the meridian by Bouguier and La Condamine. It is actually under the equator.

Little or no rain falls on the western or Pacific side of the Andes, except in the temperate latitudes near the southern extremity. In that part, however, there is not only rain, but extensive glaciers, which come down near the sea, and penetrate below the limits of the palm tree and other tropical and sub-tropical vegetation. Nothing can surpass the desolation of these regions. Further north in the Andes of Chili there are a number of volcanoes, and some extremely lofty peaks, Aconcagua, near Valparaiso, rising to 23,200 feet (as much as 10,500 feet above the snow line in that latitude).

In the higher plains of the Andes there are remarkable atmospheric effects, the landscape being without much colour, although the sky is generally quite cloudless. This arises no doubt from the thinness of the air. Changes of weather are sudden and violent, and the storms, both electric and of wind, are singularly destructive and terrible.

ANDIRONS

sition of the rock Andesite, which occurs in the Andes of South America.

Andirons. The term used by the medieval authors to express the fire dogs which were used in places where wood was burnt. They were often made highly ornamental, and were adorned with silver and plated extremities of the most elegant character.

Andreaceae (Andrea, one of the genera). Little moss-like plants, differing from the true mosses in the want of an operculum and peristome, and in having four-valved spore-cases. Andreasbergolite. A name given to Harmotome, after Andreasberg in the Harz, where it was first discovered.

Andrena. The name of a Fabrician genus of bees, including those which have the tongue three-cleft, and the labium cylindrical, with two membraneous bristles on each side.

Andrœceum (Gr. àvýp, a male, and olkos, a house). All that part of a flower to which the male organs appertain. The ring of stamens in a plant is an andrœceum; so is the fringe at the mouth of the tube in the passion flower, taken together with the true stamens. The term may be literally translated the male apparatus.

Androgynous (Gr. àvdpóyvvos, from àvnp, a man, and yvrh, a woman). In Botany, a union of both males and females, either in the same flower, which is also called hermaphrodite, or upon the same plant, the sexes being in different flowers, as in the birch and similar trees. The latter is what Linnæus called monœcious.

ANDROGYNOUS. In Physiology, the possession of the organs of both sexes in the same individual, either naturally, as in the snail; or preternaturally, as in the free martin and similar monsters. An hermaphrodite. Android (Gr. àvnp, man, and eldos, form). An automaton which imitates the actions of man. [AUTOMATON.]

Andromeda (after the virgin Andromeda, daughter of Cepheus and Cassiope). A family of Ericaceous shrubs, many of which are cultivated for the sake of the flowers. The type species is A. polifolia, a dwarf plant possessing acrid narcotic properties, and found wild in boggy situations in some parts of England.

Andron (Gr.) In Architecture, the suite of apartments exclusively occupied by the male part of the establishment. [GYNECEUM.]

Androphorum (Gr. àvýp, a man, or, in Botany, a stamen, and pépei, to bear). A columnar expansion of the centre of the flower, on which the stamens seem to grow, as in the passion flower. In reality, it is formed partly of the adhering filaments, and partly of an elevation of the growing point.

Andropogon (Gr. århp, a man, and wŵywv, a beard). A genus of tropical grasses containing A. Schoenanthus, the sweet-lemon-grass, which yields one of the fragrant lemon-scented grass oils; A. Calamus-aromaticus, considered to be the sweet cane of Scripture; and A. (Anatherum) muricatus, the aromatic khus of India, and vetiver of the French.

ANEMOMETER

Anecdote (Gr. dvékdoтov, something unpublished). In its original sense, some particular relative to a subject not noticed in previous works on that subject. In its secondary sense, the narrative of a particular action or saying of an individual.

Anellata, Anellides (Lat. anellus or annellus, a little ring). Sometimes written annelidans or annelides. A class of articulate animals, with a long cylindrical body, divided into ring-like segments, having red blood, and respiratory organs, but no jointed extremities. They are classified as follows:Order Suctoria. Leeches

Earthworms, Naiads. Nereids, Seacentipedes, Lugworms, & Sea-mice.

Tubicola. Serpulans

Anelytrous (Gr. ¿véλvrpos, from å priv., and λurpov, a sheath). A name sometimes given to those insects which have two or four membranous wings, either naked or covered only with hairs or scales.

Anemometer (Gr. &vepos, the wind, and uérpov, measure). An instrument for measuring the force or velocity of the wind.

Dr. Lind's anemometer consists of a glass tube, bent into the form of the letter U, and open at both extremities. One of the extremities, A, is also bent round to the horizontal direction, in order that the wind may blow into it. The tube being partially filled with water and exposed to a current of air, the water in the branch at which the wind enters is depressed, for example, to B, and consequently rises in the other branch to C, and the difference, b C, of the levels at which it stands in the two branches is the height of a column of water, the weight of which forms a counterpoise to the force of the wind. The relative velocities of the wind are thus ascertained, the variation of the velocity being nearly proportional to the square root of the resistance. The bore of the tube is diminished at the bottom to check the undulations of the water caused by a sudden gust of wind. This instrument may be mounted on pivots, and an arrow-shaped vane attached, so that the mouth A shall be always exposed to the direct current, and thus the direction as well as the velocity of the wind indicated at the same moment.

But the anemometer most generally used is one devised by Dr. Robinson, of Armagh, and made by Casella, of London. It consists essentially of four hemispherical cups, having their diametral planes exposed to a passing current of air; they are carried by four folding horizontal arms attached to a vertical shaft or axis, which is caused to rotate by the velocity of the wind.

ANGEL-WATER

tuted by Constantine, but probably by the imperial house of Comnenus at Constantinople, and revived by the Emperor Charles V. The grand mastership of this order was resigned by the last representative of the house of Comnenus to that of Farnese, dukes of Parma.

Angel-water. A mixture of rose, orangeflower, and myrtle water, perfumed by musk and ambergris. It is made in Portugal.

Angelic Acid. A solid white crystalline body, found in angelica root. It may be formed by heating oil of chamomile with a

caustic alkali.

Angelic Ether. A compound of angelic acid and ether.

Angelica (Gr. ȧyyeλıkós, angelic, from its supposed virtues) A tall growing Umbelliferous plant, found on the banks of rivers, and in other watery places. It grows four or six feet high, and has large compound leaves. The stalks are hollow.

Angelicin. A neutral substance found in angelica root.

Angels (Gr. ayyeλos, a messenger). Spiritual beings ministering to God. In the Scriptures they appear as messengers, by whom God conveys his commands to men. We read also of the devil and his angels. See Milman, Lat. Christianity, b. iv. c. 2.

Angina (Lat. from ango-Gr. &yxw, I strangle). A disease attended with a sense of anxiety and suffocation. The term is commonly applied to certain symptoms arising from organic disease of the heart, which gives rise to a distressing difficulty of respiration, and is hence termed Angina Pectoris.

Angiocarpous (Gr. ayyeîov, a vessel, and Kaρnós, fruit). When seed-vessels are inclosed within a covering that does not form a part of themselves, as the filbert, covered by its husk, or the acorn seated in its cupule. The word is also applied sometimes to such fungi as have their spores included in a peridium, or hollow-shell, as Lycoperdon.

Angiospermous (Gr. ayyetor, and σrépua, seed). When seeds are inclosed within a pericarp, as in most plants. The word is now chiefly used in opposition to gymnospermous, which means that seeds are not included in a pericarp, as in fir-trees and others. Linnæus intended to apply it in the same sense; but he contrasted it with small-lobed seed-like fruits, which he mistook for naked seeds.

ANGLE

The

'the inclination of two straight lines, which meet, but have not the same direction.' point of meeting is called the vertex of the angle, and the lines themselves its sides. A clearer conception of an angle as a magnitude, however, is obtained by considering it as the quantity of turning around the vertex, which would have to be applied to one side in order to make it coincide with the other. To this it might be objected that the coincidence in question could be brought about by very different quantities of turning. The rotation, for instance, might be direct (like the hands of a watch) or retrograde, or it might be arrested at the first, or at any subsequent coincidence. This absence of strict definition, which might easily be remedied if desired, has, however, its own advantages, especially in trigonometry. Euclid always understands by the angle between two right lines the least quantity of rotation necessary to produce coincidence. The quantity of turning necessary to make a line coincide with its continuation has been called an angle of continuation; half of this is a right angle.

In the ordinary measurement of an angle, a complete rotation is supposed to be divided into 360 equal parts called degrees (°), each degree being subdivided into 60 equal parts called minutes ('), and each minute again into 60 parts, termed seconds (").

The theoretical, or, as it is called, the circular measure of an angle, instead of being a concrete is an abstract number. A circle is conceived to be described around the vertex, and the ratio of the arc, intercepted by the sides of the angle to the radius of the circle, is taken as the measure of the angle. The assumption is justified on the ground that the ratio in question does not depend upon the magnitude of the circle, whilst for one and the same circle this ratio is proportional to the arc, and, therefore, to the angle at the centre standing on that arc.

According to the above definition the theoretical angular unit will be the angle at the centre which is subtended by an arc equal to the radius. The circumference of a circle being

times its diameter or 2 times its radius (where represents the number 3.14159, &c. [CIRCLE]), will be the circular measure of two right angles or 180°, and if A be the number of degrees in any other angle, whose circular measure is, we have the following simple formula for converting ordinary into circular

до

0

1800 π

ANGLE OF CONTACT. Called also angle of contingence; it is the infinitesimal angle between the rectilinear tangents to a curve at two consecutive points. When the curve is traced on a surface, the angle between two geodesic lines touching the curve at consecutive points is called the geodesic angle of contact. [CURVATURE, GEODESIC.]

ANGLE OF CURVATURE. The angle between