CUNEIFORM LETTERS CUMINIC ACID tumours. Some of the Roman poets allude to | been called in question by Sir G. Cornewall its power of producing pallor and languor. The Lewis, in his work on the Astronomy of the essential oil of cumin seed is a mixture of a Ancients. hydrocarbon termed cymol (C20, H14), and of an oxyhydrocarbon called cuminol or hydride of cumyl (C20 H11 O2+ H). Cuminic Acid. An organic acid, formed when oil of cumin is added to fused hydrate of potash. It crystallises in colourless plates. Cumulant (Lat. cumulans, part. of cumulo, I heap up). A term given by Sylvester (Phil. Trans. 1853) to the numerator or denominator of the convergent of a continued fraction. [CONTINUED FRACTION.] The origin of the cuneiform letters has more lately engaged the attention of Mr. James Nasmyth, to whom we are indebted for the following remarks: There appears to be one general principle to which the distinctive form of all alphabetic writing owes its origin, namely, the peculiar nature of the materials employed in the primitive ages of the people who originated the alphabetic character in question. Whatever be the material employed to write upon or write with, the nature of the material will be certain to influence the form of the character produced; so much so, that however time and circumstances may cause a change in the selection of materials employed, a greater or less traditional exactness will be adhered to in the copy of the original prototype character. 'Among the many examples which attest this fact, there does not exist a stronger one than in the case of the cuneiform character, which had its origin in the fact of the early Assyrian nations employing the mud of their river banks as their building material in the form of bricks. To that circumstance we may most reasonably trace and assign the origin as well as the peculiar form of the cuneiform character. Not only does the cuneiform character make its earliest appearance in bricks and pottery, but it is so absolutely identified with plastic material, that in order to reproduce it in its original integrity of form, as well as by the most simple means, we must have recourse to clay, in the condition of a soft brick for our tablet, and the corner angle of a dried brick for our "style" or inscribing implement. Cuneate (Lat. cuneatus, from cuneus, a wedge). An animal or part is so called which has the longitudinal diameter exceeding the transverse, and narrowing gradually downwards. Cuneiform Letters, called Keilschriften by the Germans (Lat. cuneus, a wedge). The name given to the inscriptions found on old Babylonian and Persian monuments, from the characters being formed like a wedge. This species of writing, as it is the simplest, so it is the most ancient of which we have any knowledge. About eighty years ago, a few specimens of inscriptions existing at Persepolis found their way into Europe, and the attention of the learned was directed to the subject. Many German philologists, at the head of whom was the celebrated Tychsen, applied themselves to the task of deciphering and translating these inscriptions with an unrivalled energy and enthusiasm. It was not, however, till the commencement of the present century, when Dr. Grotefend of Hanover engaged in the pursuit, that the mystery in which this species of writing had for so many centuries been involved began to be cleared up. According to him, this mode of writing is formed of two radical signs-the wedge and the angle-susceptible, however, of about thirty different combinations; and consists of three varieties, distinguished from each other by a greater or less complication of the characters. It is of Asiatic origin; is written from right to left, like the Sanscrit; differs from the ancient Egyptian hieroglyphics, inasmuch as it is alphabetic, not ideographic; and, finally, with a few considerable modifications, forms the basis of most of the Eastern languages. The views of Dr. Grotefend received striking confirmation from the researches of Mr. Rich. A full exposition of this species of writing would prove one of the most valuable accessions to modern literature; but the only direct results by which this study was long followed may be stated to be the translation of a few minor inscriptions, and the establishment of a canon so extremely arbitrary, that it was very problematical if the labours of others in the same field could be materially benefited by it. Within the last few years a new impetus has been given to the prosecution of this study by the numerous facts brought to light on the spot through the intrepidity of Botta, Rawlinson, and Layard; but the method of interpreting these inscriptions and the certainty of its results have recently CUNEIFORM LETTERS is, however, that the corner angle of a dried brick will give us the means of inscribing on the side of a soft brick or clay tablet every size and variety of cuneiform character, and in the absence of any certain inFig. 2 CUPID and variety of character by simply modifying the extent of depression into the clay surface or by varying the position of the axis of the style as to direction, or angle of depression in respect to the surface of the clay tablet. However complete the arrangement of the character, or varied the size of the letters or words, if we may so term them, they are all found to consist of the one element so distinctively marks this character. 'When the cuneiform came to be applied to hard materials, certain slight modifications of form were introduced, but in no case greater than might be expected from change of material, time, and people. The clay prototype proclaims itself to the eye; and such was the pertinacity of traditional adherence to the cuneiform original, that even when ages had passed and the very language disappeared and became changed to the Greek, as in the case of the AssyrianGreek collections, the Greek letters cut in marble by these people and their descendants have the cuneiform character strongly marked in them, as the most cursory glance at such Greek inscriptions will abundantly testify, as thus: AYTEMKTN as a reasonable explanation of its origin. Be and in conclusion it may be well to remark, that as it may, there can be no doubt as to the as an instance of the pertinacity with which fact that in its earliest stages of developement certain shapes and forms are clung to long it was written on surfaces of soft clay by means of a "style," having all the structural powers or inscribing properties of the corner angle of a brick, with the advantage of greater handiness. That such was the form of the style employed and such its mode of use, the author had the good fortune to prove by the discovery Fig. 3 after the causes that led to their origin have departed, that in the capital letters of our modern alphabet we find in the cross-strokes of such capital letters unmistakable evidence of cuneiform origin in the feature in question. The only variation in the modern letter is this: the cross stroke is parallel to the line of letters or at right angles to it, whereas in the Assyrian-Greek inscriptions it is at right angles with the axis of the limb of the letter, each limb being in fact a cuneiform.' [ALPHABET.] Cunette (Fr.). In Fortification, a narrow ditch in the middle of a dry ditch, serving as a drain, or if filled with water, as an obstacle to the enemy. Cunoniaceae (Cunonia, one of the genera). A natural order of arborescent or shrubby Exogens, inhabiting South America and the East Indies; allied so intimately to Saxifragacee, that they are only distinguished by their arborescent habit and interpetiolar stipules. The bark of some species is used for tanning leather. Cupel (Fr. coupelle). A shallow and porous earthen vessel, somewhat of a cup shape, generally made of bone earth. It is used in the assays of the precious metals, which are fused upon a cupel with lead. Cupellation means the refining of gold or silver upon a cupel. Cupid (Lat. Cupido). The Roman name of the god of love." Cicero speaks of three divinities under this appellation (De Nat. Deor. | Curates form the lowest order of the clergy; 3. 23.); but the one usually meant when spoken and are divided into two classes, perpetual and of without any qualification was the son of Mer-stipendiary. 'Perpetual curates are such as cury and Venus. He is generally represented are appointed to the churches of those parishes as a beautiful child with wings, blind, and car- in which the tithes were appropriated to some rying a bow and quiver of arrows. [EROS.] Cupola (Ital.). In Architecture. [DOME.] CUPOLA. The term applied to the furnace used in batteries for heating shot to be fired against shipping. Cupping (from the cup shape of the glasses used in its performance). In this operation a cup-shaped glass is used, into which the large flame of a spirit lamp is momentarily introduced, so as to expel a great part of its air by dilatation; it is then instantly applied to some part of the body, which is forced into it by the external pressure; and on removing the glass a circular red mark is left, from the propulsion of the blood into the small vessels of the part: this is called dry cupping. It is generally followed up by making a number of incisions in the part by means of an instrument called a scarificator, from which the blood oozes, and from which a considerable portion may be drawn by again applying the cupping glass. Cupping, when well performed, is not a very painful or disagreeable operation, and is an excellent mode of local blood-letting. When the operator is not dexterous, it is not only painful, but often dangerous in its consequences. The bleeding may generally be easily stopped by a piece of lint or soft rag; but this should be looked after, as instances have occurred of persons bleeding to death from the wounds of a scarificator. Cuprammonium. The hypothetical positive radical of a salt obtained on passing ammoniacal gas over hot chloride of copper. Cupric Acid. A peroxide of copper supposed to be formed when copper, potash and nitre are fused together. Cuprocyanogen. A compound radical contained in the double cyanide of copper and potassium. Cuproplumbite. A double sulphide of lead and copper found in Chili, in granular masses of a lead-grey colour, with a metallic lustre and a cubic cleavage. Cupule. In Botany, the cup or husk of the acorn and similar fruits, forming a sort of involucre. Cupuliferæ or Cupbearers. Another name for the Corylaceæ. Curaçoa. A liqueur which derives its name from the island of Curaçoa. It is prepared in great perfection by the Dutch, and derives its flavour from Seville orange peel, with a small quantity of cinnamon and mace. Curarine. An alkaloid contained in Curara, the Ourari, Wourali, or Arrow Poison of the South American Indians. Curassoe. [CRAX.] Curate (Lat. curare, to take care). Properly, an incumbent who has the cure of souls; now generally restricted to signify the spiritual assistant of a rector or vicar in his cure. monastery before the statute 4 Hen. IV. making it necessary to endow a vicar, or which had from some cause or other escaped its operation;' or they are such as officiate in some chapel : in either of which cases, their salary is usually paid by some fixed payment, or by a portion of the tithes appropriated for their maintenance at the foundation of the chapel. Stipendiary curates are such as are appointed by the vicar or rector to officiate at their churches in their stead. As to these, the law was regulated in 1838 by the Act 1 & 2 Vict. c. 106, which gives the bishop power to require their appointment, or himself to appoint, where the incumbent is non-resident, or the duties are inadequately performed, &c., and in large benefices (above 500l. per annum and 3,000 population) in addition to the resident incumbent. Salaries to be fixed according to the scale appointed by the Act. In cases of non-residence, the curate is to be allowed under certain restrictions the use of the parsonage house. (Cripps, Law relating to Church and Clergy, 1857.) Curator (Lat.). In a general sense, signifies a person who is appointed to take care of anything. Among the ancient Romans, there were officers in every branch of the public service to whom this appellation was given: thus we read of Curatores aquarum, frumenti, viarum, operum publicorum, Tiberis, &c. &c. : i.e. persons who distributed corn, superintended the making of roads and the public buildings, or were conservators of the river, &c.—Curator, in the Civil Law, is the guardian of a minor who has attained the age of fourteen. Before that age, minors are under a tutor. The guardianship of persons under various disabilities, and of the estate of deceased or absent persons and insolvents, is also committed to a curator. In learned institutions, the officer who has charge of libraries, collections of natural history, &c. is frequently styled curator. Curb Roof. In Architecture, a roof in which the rafters, instead of continuing straight down from the ridge to the walls, are at a given height received on plates, which in their turn are supported by rafters less inclined to the horizon, whose bearing is through the medium of the wall plates, directly upon the wall. It presents a bent appearance, as in the diagram, whence it derives its name; it is also called the Mansard roof, from the name of the celebrated French architect who very frequently resorted to its use. Curcas. A genus of Euphorbiaceæ, comprising the Physic nut, C. purgans, a plant which differs from Jatropha in having a bellshaped instead of a five-petaled corolla. It is a bush of tropical America, cultivated for the purgative oil of its seeds. CURCULIO CURRENCY Cureulio (Lat. a weevil). A Linnæan genus | in the first instance is generally supposed to be the unhealthy state of the set; but something also may be owing to bad management and improper soil. of Coleopterous insects, now the type of an extensive family, Curculionide, or weevils belonging to the Tetramerous section of the order. The prolongation of the anterior part of the head, in the form of a proboscis or snout, at once distinguishes the insects of the present family from all other beetles. The number of the Curculionide may be imagined when it is stated that entomologists have found it necessary to distribute them into nearly three hundred subgenera. They are all vegetable feeders, and include some of the most dangerous enemies to the vegetable stores of mankind. Curcuma (Arab. kurkum). This genus of Zingiberacea yields Turmeric and Zedoary, the former being produced by C. longa, the latter by C. aromatica and C. zedoaria. The tubers are the parts used, and they are pleasant aromatics. Turmeric enters into the composition of curry powder. Curcumin. An amorphous resinous colouring matter contained in turmeric root. Curetes (Gr. Koupηres). In Greek Mythology, the Cretan attendants of Zeus, or Jupiter, who watched over him in his infancy. In the Iliad, the Curetes are mentioned as the adversaries of the Etolians, who were defeated by Meleagros at Calydon. (Thirlwall, History of Greece, vol. i. ch. iv.) [CORYBANTES.] Curfew (from the French couvre-feu, in modern Latin ignitegium). The practice of tolling the church bell at eight or some other hour in the evening, to warn people to extinguish their fires, was a very common one in the middle ages. It is difficult to say on what foundation the common tradition, that William the Conqueror introduced it from Normandy to prevent the English from assembling in the evening to plan schemes of rebellion, rests. It is more probable that the Conqueror enforced a very common police regulation. The real reason of the curfew was to prevent fires. The custom of ringing the evening or curfew bell is still retained in many places. (Brand's Popular Antiquities, vol. ii. pp. 136, 137.) Curia (Lat.). [CURIES.] Curies, Curiæ (Lat.). A subdivision of the Roman patrician tribes, each of which were divided into ten curies. These curies probably contained originally ten houses (gentes) each. These houses were similar to the Scottish clans, in which, though the bond of union was supposed to be that of common blood, yet in reality there was no consanguinity between many of the component families. The building in which the senate held its meetings in Italian cities was called curia. There were several such curiæ in Rome. Curl. A disease in potatoes, in which the leaves on their first appearance appear curled and shrunk up; and consequently, as they do not present a sufficient surface to the light to elaborate the sap in a sufficient manner for carrying on the growth of the plant, it never acquires strength, and either dies, or produces very imperfect tubers. The cause of the disease Currant. The fruit of two species of Ribes; namely, R. rubrum, which furnishes the common red and white currants; and R. nigrum, which produces the black currant. The currants of the grocers' shops (so called from Corinth, as the chief mart for this fruit) are the dried berries of a small species of grape cultivated in Zante, Cephalonia, and Ithaca; and in the Morea in the vicinity of Patras. These so-called currants are largely imported into Great Britain, and the entries of currants for home consumption for the year 1863 amounted to 768,312 cwt., of the computed real value of 981,137, and yielding in the form of customs duties 268,9241. Currency (from Lat. curro, I run). In Political Economy, a generic term employed to designate the conventional measure of value, whether the measure be immediate, as gold and silver coin, or substitutive, as bank-notes and their analogies. The term MONEY will be treated below, and will be limited to the sense of a metallic circulation; at present we may make a few remarks on the wider and more significant word, currency. The recognition and employment of a measure of value is as essential to all but the simplest operations of exchange, as the recognition and employment of language is to all but the simplest operations of thought. Society exists by the interdependence of individuals, and in the reciprocity of services; the progress or developement of society, from an economical point of view, consisting in the continual subdivision of occupations, for the purpose of greater efficiency and economy in the production of whatever objects form the services or utilities offered. But in order that these services should be rendered, they must be called into existence by a demand, and this demand can be effectual only when a service of another character is offered, the significance of which is sufficient to dispose to an exchange between the two services or utilities. With a view to the determination of such an act of exchange, it is almost always necessary that the respective utilities or services should be measured by some standard of value well and familiarly understood between the contracting persons, and this standard must be of such a kind as is liable, among other qualities, to the fewest possible fluctuations in its intrinsic or absolute value. For the same reason of comparative invariability in absolute value, this conventional measure will also satisfy another essential condition; that, namely, of being universally acceptable as a means for interposing a period, more or less protracted, before the entire completion of an act of exchange. For example, A produces shoes and B produces bread. But A may want bread before B wants shoes. The exchange, however, between the parties may still take place by the intervention of currency. If B receives this medium, he takes CURRENCY it on the faith that, whenever he pleases hereafter, he may complete the exchange with A by the purchase of shoes, or may employ the right to shoes assigned to him by the transfer of a portion of currency, in procuring any other utility which he may desire. Hence a sale has been said to be half an exchange. If we bear in mind that the radical significance of a currency lies in the facts of its being acceptable on the ground of its generally equal or persistent value, and of its satisfying a seller from its being transferable for nearly equal quantities of utilities at a deferred period, we shall find no great difficulty in interpreting almost all practical questions which arise in connection with currency. The basis of a circulating medium must be a commodity which, being produced in nearly equal quantities by nearly equal labour, is, as has been said, of nearly equal absolute value. If two commodities of this kind are discovered and employed, they must not only possess, separately, the characteristic of general invariability, but if both are employed simultaneously as media of exchange, they must possess also a relative invariability. (See below, Double Currency.) Now, nothing has yet been discovered which possesses separately or relatively these characteristics except the metals gold and silver. Not that this quality is the sole cause for the general acceptance of these commodities as media of exchange, but this is the fundamental and essential reason for their selection. The existence of a measure of exchange is a primary condition of economical society; it may be to some extent satisfied, in the total absence of the precious metals, by the substitution of a fictitious measure; and some of the native tribes in the interior of Africa, where the precious metals are unknown, are said to use a mere mental fiction in order to measure values; but it is impossible fully to satisfy the conditions of the act of exchange, except by the interposition of these metals, or, if it might be discovered, by some other commodity possessing in a still more distinct manner the characteristics of gold and silver. These metals, then, form part of the machinery of exchange; an expensive part, because, as we have seen, they are selected at once from the fact of their exceptional fitness for the function they fulfil, and because they cost great labour in the acquisition. Were they procured cheaply, even though the condition of equal quantities of labour were continued in their production, much of this utility would be lost, because, though still an efficient measure of value, they would be cumbrous and inconvenient. To retain their place, they must be dear. It must be borne in mind that the agent in any economical process is always striving to procure or produce the greatest possible results with the least possible expenditure of labour. This natural impulse is further intensified by the principle of competition. Labour, to have a value, must be undertaken for some ulterior purpose, and, if we say that each person desires to get an increasing quantity for his labour, we are only stating in a different set of words that he wishes to shorten or economise his labour as much as possible, and to exhibit equal or greater results at less cost. Hence it is that labour is divided, and that all possible forces, natural and artificial, as, for instance, the natural force of running water and the artificial force of steam, are appropriated by the ingenuity of man-an ingenuity developed, as far as society is concerned, wholly from the principle of competition. Now what applies to individuals applies also to society at large, or rather to political communities. They desire, unconsciously perhaps, but quite as effectively, to diminish, as far as possible, the expense attending the employment of the machinery of exchange. Hence, even in the face of all the administrative restrictions imaginable, they will always employ just as much of these precious metals for the purposes of exchange as they need, and no more. The quantity needed varies very little when the process of exchange is regular and undisturbed, but increases and diminishes by the pressure of certain events, or even by the contingency of these events. As an inference from what has been stated, there is always a tendency towards diminishing the quantity of the currency to the least possible amount consistent with the wants of the community, and the forecast of these contingencies, while all laws and regulations, however much they may multiply or precipitate these contingencies, are inadequate to prevent any evasion by which every possible economy in this expensive material may be achieved. One of the earliest means by which this economy is effected is by the substitution of tallies or tokens for the metallic currency itself. Even if this substitution had nothing to recommend it but the saving of wear and tear in the metals, and in the supply of a means for more readily identifying and securing the right to a claim on the metal by the presentation and delivery of the tally or token, the means in question would have a great importance in diminishing the cost of the monetary machinery. Hence, in the imperfect economies of the ancient and medieval world, substitutes for metallic currency were well known, in the shape of banker's tallies and bills of exchange. It will be manifest, if an actual transfer of cash from one town to another were necessary in all transactions between the trades of either locality, that a far larger amount of metallic currency would be needed than is actually required when letters authorising mutual payments take the place of such a metallic transfer. Whether, indeed, these tallies and bills of exchange were circulated by transfer or endorsement in those remote periods or not, is a question difficult to determine. Modern societies, however, have not been slow to discover that certain documents purporting a right to claim a specified portion of the precious metals at a specified place or places, are, provided they can be framed in such a way as makes fraud practically impossible, a powerful means towards an economy of the expensive |