Observations on the Letters.

6. LABIALS are those letters we pronounce with the 'lips;' DENTALS-with the 'teeth '; GUTTURALS-with the 'throat.'

7.

(i) c is soft like s before e, i, y, as cell, civil, cymbal; except in sceptic, Cymry (pronounced Cumru).

c is hard like k before a, o, u, r, l, t.

It has the sound of sh in some words; as, social.
(ii) F is pronounced uniformly, except in of and its com-
pounds, when it is pronounced like v.

(iii) G is soft before e, i, y; hard before a, o, u, n, l, r.
(iv) s is sometimes sharp, as in sing; flat, as in raisin; zh,
or sh, as in pleasure; silent, as in island.

(v) TH has two sounds: sharp, as in thin-flat, as in these.

These two sounds were represented by the symbols b-th, and -dh, in Anglo-Saxon.

(vi) x has the sound of ks, as in exercise, gs as in exertion, z as in Zenophon.

(vii) z has the sound of flat s, as in zebra: of flat sh, as in

azure.

8. There are 42 elementary sounds in the English Alphabet, and 26 letters. A perfect alphabet requires :

(i) A single sign for every simple sound.

(ii) No sound should have more than one sign.

(iii) No sign should represent more than one sound.

(iv) Similar sounds should be represented by similar signs.

9. Viewed by these tests the English alphabet is uncertain, inconsistent, erroneous, deficient, redundant.

10. These defects are remedied by various expedients, such as: (i) Lengthening a vowel by adding a final e, mute, as bit, bīte. (ii) Shortening a vowel by doubling the next consonant, as

cărry.

(iii) Adding h to mark the aspirates of p, t, s.

§ 3. Spelling.

1. SPELLING is the arrangement of letters in a word.

2. ORTHOGRAPHY is the art of correct spelling.

3. The anomalies of English spelling are influenced by :

(i) The deficiencies and uncertain sounds of our alphabet.
(ii) The variety and copiousness of our words taken from
various sources, and necessarily connected by their
spelling with their roots.

(iii) The necessity of distinguishing words of like sound, but
of different meaning.

4. Rules for Spelling:

(i) VOWELS.

(a) Final E. Words ending in e mute generally

retain it before additions that begin with a consonant; as, paleness. Exc.: Awful, duly, truly, wholly. - omit it before additions that begin with a vowel; as, curable.

Exc.: After V, C, and G soft it is retained; as, changeable. After DG it is generally omitted; as, judgment. Before ous it becomes i; as, gracious. (b) Diphthongal sounds of e are spelt ei in derivatives from capio; as, receive: otherwise in ie; as, believe. (c) Final Y-remains unchanged before additions: —in simple words preceded by a vowel,

-in true compounds, except before ing and ish; as, joyful, ladyship.

is changed into i before additions:

when preceded by a vowel.

when the compound word is made one; as, handiwork, daily.

The words laid, pard, said, staid are accounted for by the participial suffix ed.

(ii) CONSONANTS.

(a) Monosyllables ending in f, l, s, preceded by a short vowel, double the final letter; as, well, mill, pass, staff.

Except As, gas, his, this, thus, us, yes, was, clef, if, of. (b) Monosyllables ending in any other letter than ƒ, l, s, keep the final consonant single; as, son, cup.

Except: Add, butt, buzz, ebb, egg, err, inn, odd.

Final LL' is peculiar to monosyllables and their compounds. (c) Final c and ck. Monosyllables and English verbs end in ck, other words in c, as public.

Except: lac, soc, zinc, disc, talc.

(iii) DOUBLE LETTERS:

(a) Words ending with a double letter retain both before additions, if these do not begin with the same letter; as, agreeable, successful.

If the same letter follows, one is omitted; as, hilly.

(iv) COMPOUND and DERIVED WORDS.

Words ending with a double letter preserve it double in all derivatives formed by prefixes; as, call, recall, fall, befall.

Exc.: Enrol, fulfil, befel.

(v) MONOSYLLABLES.

Words ending in single l; words accented on the final syllable when the vowel is short, double the final consonant before additions; as, thinner, acquittal, grovelling.

(b) If the accent is thrown back the final letter is not generally doubled; as, refér, réference.

(vi) IZE, ISE. Causative verbs end in ize: monosyllables (and where ise is not a distinct part of the root) in ise; as, in advise, rise, surprise.

5. DIVIDING SYLLABLES.

As a general rule subordinate to etymological propriety, each separate syllable should, as far as possible, begin with a consonant: as, re-pre-hen-si-ble.

§ 4. Accent.

1. ORTHOEPY is the art of correct pronunciation. EMPHASIS is the stress laid on a word in a sentence. ACCENT is the stress laid on a syllable in a word.

QUANTITY is the length or brevity of a vowel sound.

2. ACCENT in English is entirely distinct from quantity. Thus, August, augúst have each one long syllable (au), but we accent either syllable.

3. Accent as a rule is on the root, not on the prefix, nor on the suffix.

4. One great use of accent is according to this general rule. right from the adjective and noun; the adjective moves it to the right from the noun. * Thus:

to distinguish words alike in form, The verb moves the accent to the

5. English words are accented on any of the last four syllables. The favourite place in words that admit of it is the antepenult; and words imported into English have a tendency to shift their accent in accordance with this law; as,

* There are some exceptions of course; as Invalid (noun), Inválid (adj.) The question arises whether the former should not be Invalid.

§ 5. Word according to Meaning.

1. ETYMOLOGY has a threefold province :

(i) It treats of the classification of words.

(ii) It treats of the composition and derivation of words.
(iii) It treats of the inflexions of words.

2. All words may be classified, or arranged under certain heads. 3. The classes into which all words may be divided are termed PARTS OF SPEECH.

4. The classification of words is exceedingly diverse. Four principal schemes are given: (1) according to Morell; (2) according to the suggestions of Horne Tooke; (3) according to Latham; and (4) from Angus.

5. Preference is given to the views of Dr. Angus, because they appear to be most logical and most universal in application.

6. Words are divided into those,

7.

1. Which give names to persons and things—APPELLATIVE.
2. Which ascribe attributes to persons and things—ATTRI-

BUTIVE.

3. Which express relations between other words-RELA

TIONAL.

4. Which express feeling rather than thought-EMOTIONAL. 1. APPELLATIVE WORDS are NOUNS and PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 2. ATTRIBUTIVES are

(i) ADJECTIVES which append a quality to a Noun with-
out formally asserting it.

(ii) VERBS which assert the qualities or acts; or
(iii) ADVERBS which append qualities either to Adjec-
tives or Verbs.

3. RELATIONAL or INTERRELATING WORDS are—

(i) PREPOSITION, which expresses the relation between one word and another.

(ii) CONJUNCTIONS, which express the relation between one assertion and another.

4. EMOTIONAL are called INTERJECTIONS.

C