15. PALGRAVE. Central and Eastern Arabia, pp. 1-424. 16. LEVISIC. Arch. d. Pharm., ser. 3, vol. viii, p. 294. 17. BANNISTER. Cantor Lectures, 1890. 18. RIDENOUR. Am. J. Pharm., 1891, p. 207. Malt Liquors 22. In the preparation of this section, the author has consulted and drawn largely from the following works: Effront's "Enzyme"; Jorgensen's "Micro-organisms of Fermentation"; Southby's "Practical Brewing"; Thausing's "Malt and Beer"; Syke's "Principles and Practice of Brewing"; Moritz and Morris's "Science of Brewing"; Hansen's "Studies in Fermentation"; "Analyses of Ale," by Chittenden and Mendel; American Journal of Medical Science, 1896; Crampton, "Fermented Alcoholic Beverages," U. S. Dept. of Agric., Bull. 13; Robert's "Digestion and Diet," p. 119. Stimulants 23. In preparing this section the author has derived much help from the following sources: "Pharmacologic and Physiologic Action of Alcohol," by Abel; "Alcohol-How It Affects the Individual and the Community," by Henry Smith Williams, M.D.; “The Influence of Alcoholic Beverages on Digestion and Secretion," by R. H. Chittenden; "An Experimental Inquiry Regarding the Nutritive Value of Alcohol," by Atwater and Benedict; "Final Experiments on the Elimination of Alcohol from the Body," by Antsie, Practitioner, 1874; "Study and Stimulants," by A. A. Reade; "The Physiological Action of Alcohol," by Sir Lauder Brunton, Practitioner, 1876; "Foods, Their Origin, Composition and Manufacture," by William Tibbles; "Source and Chemistry of Foods," by E. H. S. Bailey, Ph.D.; "Food and Dietetics," by Robert Hutchison. 24. SWIENTOCHOWSKI. Ztschr. f. klin. Med., 1904, vol. xlvi, p. 284. 25. DIXON. Tr. Brit. Med. Assn., 1904. 26. CABOT. Boston Med. & Surg. J., July 23, 1904. 27. ABEL, JOHN J. Physiological Aspects of the Liquor Problem, vol. ii, p. 91, pub. by Houghton Mifflin Co., New York. 28. timore. Pharmacologic and Physiologic Action of Alcohol, Bal 29. CHITTENDEN, R. H. Influence of Alcoholic Beverages upon Digestion and Secretion, Yale. 30. WILLIAMS, HENRY SMITH. Alcohol-How It Affects the Individual and the Community. 31. 32. 33. KRAEPELIN and KURZ. Kraepelin's Psychologische Arbeiten, 1900, vol. iii. TIBBLES, WILLIAM. The Origin and Manufacture of Foods. Loc. cit. 34. Wine In obtaining material for this section the author acknowledges indebtedness to the following publications: "Composition of American Wines," by W. D. Bigelow, United States Department of Agriculture, Bulletin 59; "What is Wine?" by Dupré, Popular Science Review; "On the Uses of Wines in Health and Disease," by Antsie; Report on Sherry Wine, the Lancet, 1898; "A Treatise on Wines," Scientific Library, 1896; "On the Composition of Wines," Bence Jones, 1857; "The Use of Alcoholic Liquors," by Bouchardat, Bulletin 59, United States Department of Agriculture; "On the Use of Wines in Health and Disease," by Antsie; "La Sophistication des Vins," 1884; "Die Chemische Untersuchung und Beurtheilung des Weines," Berlin, 1896. 35. DUPRÉ. Pop. Sc. Rev., vol. vii. 36. TIBBLES, WILLIAM. The Origin and Manufacture of Foods. 37. BIGELOW, W. D. Composition of Amer. Wines, U. S. Dept. Agric., 1900, Bull. 59. 38. BENCE, JONES. Composition of Wines, 1857. 39. ANTSIE. The Uses of Wines in Health and Disease, pub. by Mac 40. millan Co., 1877. VAN SLYKE. A Study of the Chemistry of Home-made Cider CHAPTER XVII SUGAR, SPICES AND CONDIMENTS Sugars: Sugar Cane; Raw Sugar; Beet Root Sugar; Sorghum Sugar; Spices and Condiments: Bay Leaf; Sage; Mace; Spearmint; Sweet Mar- Pickles and Salads: Pickles-Cold Slaw, Sauerkraut, Sktshi; Salads. SUGAR Sugar as an article of diet is of such great importance, both for its pleasant taste and nutritive value, that it is well to devote more than ordinary attention to its consideration. It is conceded that most people eat as much sugar as they can get, and that the consumption of sugar in different countries is, in general, proportionate to the wealth. Only two plants-the sugar cane and the sugar beet-play an important part in the world's supply of sugar. The manufacture of sugar from the sap of the maple and palm trees is a relatively small industry when compared with the production of sugar from the sugar cane and sugar beet. Sugar Cane. The sugar cane, which is the oldest and best known sugar-producing plant, grows only in tropical and semitropical countries. In appearance it resembles the Indian corn in many ways, and like it, produces a jointed stalk varying from eight to fourteen feet in height. Sugar cane is a native of India, and is frequently mentioned in the writings of the ancient Chinese and in the old sacred books of the Hindoos many centuries before Christ. According to Strabo, the historian, the Greek soldiers under the command of Nearchus, an Admiral of Alexander the Great, saw the cane growing in India at the time of the conquest and brought the plant with them on their return 325 B.C. Subsequently it was brought by the merchantmen who traded with Persia and India for spices, perfumes and costly merchandise. The Greek warriors became accustomed to its use during the invasion, and brought back stories of the wonderful reed which yielded a juice "sweeter than honey." The Persians and Arabians introduced the cultivation of sugar cane westward, and we find that sugar was both grown and refined in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates in the tenth century A.D. The Crusaders, in 1096, found sugar cane and sugar factories in Syria and Palestine (1), and brought back samples of the product upon their return from the East. The Saracens introduced the cultivation of sugar cane into Sicily, and the Moors into Spain; the Spaniards introduced sugar cane to the New World during their voyages of discovery and colonization (1750). In this way the sugar cane was gradually brought westward from its original home in India, and is now found throughout the entire tropical and semitropical world. The present leading sugar-cane-producing countries of the world are British India, Cuba, Java and the United States, including Porto Rico, Hawaii and the Philippine Islands. The nature and origin of sugar were but little understood by the early European consumers. It was supposed to be a form of manna, and was thought to exude from the stem of a plant or tree, and dried like gum "white and brittle." Others supposed it to be a form of "honey made from reeds." The important sources of sugar in nature are the sugar cane, sugar beets, sorghum or Chinese cane, sap of sugar maple trees, date palm trees, sap of ash trees of southern Europe, the bamboo, honey, raisins and milk of mammals. Several different varieties of sugar enter into the composition of articles of diet, but for practical purposes they may be divided into two groups: (1) Sucroses or disaccharids (C12H22011) ̧(a) Cane sugar-Sucrose 22 (2) Glucoses or monosaccharids (C,H12O6) (f) Grape sugar-Dextrose (g) Fruit sugar-Levulose (h) Invert sugar The sugar cane is propagated by planting the seeds from the flowering tops of the previous crop in plowed furrows, and another variety from cuttings, obtained from the joints of the cane stalk. When the sprouts of the young cane appear above ground, they are cultivated in a similar manner to the corn crop, with the exception that when the rainy season. begins, the cane crop is left to grow for varying lengths of time, depending on the locality and climatic conditions, etc. In Louisiana the crop is matured and ready for harvesting in less than a year, while in Hawaii the plant is allowed to go for two years. The plants blossom or flower when a year old, and in from four to five months after flowering, the canes are completely ripe and contain a sweet viscid juice. They are then ready to be harvested. They are cut down close to the ground and the tops and leaves removed; the stripped stalks are now taken to mills where the juice is expressed by grinding and crushing between revolving cylinders. The cane stalk contains about 85 per cent of juice, but in the usual process of grinding, a little more than 50 per cent is obtained, some of the best mills expressing 60 to 65 per cent; consequently 25 to 30 per cent is left in the refuse called the "begasse." This is dried by passing it over the boilers on conveyors, and is then used for fuel in the furnace. The largest mills at the present time have a capacity of a thousand tons of cane in twenty-four hours. The composition of sugar cane and the juice cbtained from it are given in the following table from Tibbles (1): The juice, as obtained from the grinding of the sugar cane stalk, is quite dark colored and turbid, containing considerable organic matter other than sugar. This is removed by passing through wire screens to eliminate the coarse fiber. It is then neutralized by lime, which precipitates organic matter and checks fermentation. Next it is submitted to the action of sulphurous acid gas, either before or after the addition of lime. |