tique of Reason, 3 vols., and in 1811 his System of Logic.— Enc. Am.

Schelling, 1775.

To him mind and nature are only manifestations of the Divine principle, and the knowledge of this identity between thought and outward existence rests on intellectual intuition. The principal of his works are, "On the Possibility of a Form of Philosophy in General" (Tuebingen, 1795); "Of the Soul of the World" (Hamburg, 1798); "On the I (ego) as a Principle of Philosophy" (Tuebingen, 1795).-Enc. Am. 3. FRENCH. Montaigne, 1533.

Montaigne is the earliest classical writer in the French language. So long as an unaffected style and an appearance of the utmost simplicity and good nature shall charm, so long as the lovers of desultory and cheerful conversation shall be more numerous than those who prefer a lecture or sermon, so long will Montaigne be among the most favourite authors of mankind.-Hallam.

1 vol. 8vo, $350.

Gassendi, 1592.

His works against the philosophy of Aristotle and that of Des Cartes, as well as his Syntagma Philosophia Epicuri, and his book on the Life of Epicurus, merit special attention.

Des Cartes, 1596.

He developed his system with much ingenuity, in opposition to the empirical philosophy of the English and the Aristotelian scholastics, and adopted the rigorous systematic or mathematical mode of reasoning.-Enc. Am.

His works published by Victor Cousin, 1824-26, 11 vols., Paris, $16 00.

Arnauld, 1612.

He was a man of vigorous and consistent mind, full of solid knowledge and great thoughts; in his writings bold and violent, undaunted in danger, and of irreproachable morals. Paris, 1770, 12 vols., $12 00.

Malebranche, 1638.

As a philosopher, although he agreed with those who preceded him in conceiving ideas to be the immediate objects of perception, he has distinguished more than any previous

metaphysician the object from the sensation which it creates, and thereby led the way to a right understanding both of our external senses and mental powers.

The principal writer of the eighteenth century, who may be considered as the representative and the personification of the age, on which he exercised a most extraordinary influence. He was the leader of the so-called philosophers of France, and was regarded as an infallible oracle in literature.-Penny Enc.

Euvres complètes, 13 vols. 8vo, $28 00, Paris, 1835.

Rousseau, 1712.

That he was a man of powerful talent, an elegant writer and acute reasoner, cannot be denied, but we look in vain through his pages for traces of that original and inventive faculty which constitutes genius and secures immortality.-Enc. Am. Euvres complètes, 25 vols. 8vo, $20 00, Paris, 1826.

Diderot, 1713.

As a philosopher, he followed the dictates of an intemperate imagination rather than those of a sound reason. His works are deficient in plan, and disfigured with pretensions, obscurity, and arrogance, but, nevertheless, are characterized by energy, and sometimes even bold eloquence.-Enc. Am. 15 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1798, $16 00.

Helvetius, 1715.

In his work an "Essay on the Mind and its Faculties," he developed with much eloquence, and followed to some bold conclusions, the principles which he had imbibed from Locke, that all thought is a modification of physical sensation. He makes this the foundation of a system of public and private morals. His work "On Man" may be considered a continuation of the former, and contains a fuller development of the doctrines laid down in it; but, at the same time, many new ones, particularly such as relate to the science of education.-Edinb. Enc.

The tendency of his writings is bad.

Translated by Dr. Hooper, London, 1810, 2 vols. 8vo, $5.00.

Condillac, 1715.

His "Essai sur 1Origine des Connaisances humaines"

K

1746, 2 vols., first drew the attention of the world to a thinker who, with much acuteness of mind, sought to explain by the law of the association of ideas almost all the phenomena of the human mind.-Enc. Am.

Paris, 1827, 16 vols. 8vo, $9 00.

Lavater, 1741.

His great work, under the modest title "Physiognomical Fragments," made him known all over Europe. He has added explanations in a poetical style, full of enthusiastic exclamations.--Enc. Am.

Translated by Holcroft, London, 1840, $5 00.

Bonstetten, 1745.

This philosopher strives more particularly to defend the emotions of the heart, the feelings, against the coldness of logicians, who derive all the operations of the mind from ideas only. His "Etudes de l'Homme" (Geneva, 1821, 2 vols.) is a valuable work, written in the spirit of the higher psychology, but more in the shape of sketches and hints than of a methodical system.—Enc. Am.

Benjamin de Constant, 1767.

His works are distinguished by perspicuity and liveliness of style, richness of imagination, and often by depth of knowledge and acute observation, although he cannot entirely divest himself of his propensity for declamation, witticisms, and sophisms.

Royer Collard, 1768.

The eloquent and able expounder of the philosophy of Reid in France, and the successful opponent of the sensual school, which, up to the time when he began his lectures in 1811, was the ruling philosophy in that country. Fragments of his lectures, published by his pupil Jouffroy, are all that remain.

De Gerando, 1770.

His leading idea is, that all the course of man's life should be a continued self-education, embracing all his faculties, and directing all his actions; and he has developed these principles in his works.-Penny Cyc.

Brussels, 1839, 2 vols. 8vo, $5 00.

Victor Cousin, 1791.

His opinions are likely to have much influence on the philosophy of France, as they rest on different principles from the sensual system, which his countrymen had derived from

Condillac and Locke. His system, of which an outline may be found in his "Fragments," coincides, in some respects, with the German metaphysics.-Enc. Am.

Euvres de Cousin, Brussels, 1840, 3 vols. 8vo, $10 00.

Jouffroy, 1796.

A disciple of Cousin, of eminent abilities. He has laboured to illustrate and establish the true psychological method of observation, and has also entered into ethical speculations. His views are not always very definite.

III. MATHEMATICAL AND PHYSICAL SCIENCES, CHEMISTRY, AND NATURAL HISTORY.

(A.) ANCIENT.

Thales, 640 B.C.

He first observed the apparent diameter of the sun, and divided the year into 365 days. Of his works none are extant. -Enc. Am.

Pythagoras, 584 B.C.

He rendered essential services to the mathematical sciences, and first established a mathematical philosophy.—Enc. Am. Euclid, 300 B.C.

He was a teacher of geometry, in which branch ne was the most thorough and distinguished scholar among the Greeks.Eschb.

The best edition is by J. Williamson, London, 1781, 2 vols. 4to.

Archimedes, 287 B.C.

We cannot fully estimate his services to mathematics, for want of an acquaintance with the previous state of science; still, we know that he enriched it with discoveries of the highest importance, upon which the moderns have built.-Eschb. Best edition by Robertson, Oxford, 1792. French translation by Peyrard, Paris, 1807.

Aristarchus, 267 B.C.

His work on the magnitude and distance of the sun and moon is still extant. He invented the sundial.-Enc. Am.

Ptolemy, 70 A.D.

He is considered the first astronomer of antiquity. The system of the world which he exhibits in his work is known under the name of the Ptolemaic; a Latin version of it was made in 1230.-Enc. Am.

Galen, 131 A.D

A Greek physician. His writings give evidence of deep reflection as well as historical knowledge of the old Greek systems of philosophy, and extend to every department of medicine.-Enc. Am.

Best edition is that of Chartier, Paris, 1679.

Roger Bacon, 1214.

His writings are wonderful, not only on account of the new and ingenious views which they present on many points in optics, &c., &c., but also on account of the prophetic insight which he seems to have had into the future triumphs of science. (B.) MODERN. Copernicus, 1473.

Copernicus was a mathematician of the first order, a sincere lover of truth, a mind free from trammels to an extent which was then almost unknown, and which we should have deemed almost incredible had we not had the proof before us. He immortalized himself by his work "De Orbium Cælestium Revolutionibus," Amsterdam, 1670.—Penny Enc.

Leonardo da Vinci, 1452.

An illustrious painter and fine writer, who, in some fragments of his writings recently published for the first time, seems (according to our common estimate of the age in which he lived) to have far outstripped all his contemporaries even in physical discoveries. The discoveries," says Hallam, "which made Galileo, and Kepler, and Mæstlin, and Maurolycus, and Castelli, and other names illustrious, the system of Copernicus, the very theories of recent geologers, are anticipated by Da Vinci within the compass of a few pages, not, perhaps, in the most precise language, or on the most conclusive reasoning, but so as to strike us with something like the awe of preternatural knowledge."

Tycho Brahe, 1546.

A celebrated astronomer. We are indebted to his observations for a more correct catalogue of the fixed stars, for several important discoveries respecting the motions of the