to cover (40,000 to 200,000 acres) is too great, however, and the number of rangers would have been greatly increased long since, had it not been that a faction in Congress has opposed all attempts to aid in the forest service.

Forest Planting.-Forest planting means the protection of denuded watersheds from erosion, and the protection of farm homes and crops from wind and cold, as well as an increase in the timber supply. The United States contains 65,000,000 acres of stripped land suitable only for the growing of trees, but which will not bear a productive forest again except through the actual planting of trees, or sowing of seeds. There are also in the west 16,000,000 acres of naturally treeless land which should be planted to trees in the interest of agriculture in the prairie region and on irrigated lands.1 There are now 24 nurseries on the national forests, of which all but nine are small or merely experimental nurseries. Three or four of the largest have an annual productive capacity of from 1,000,000 to 4,000,000 trees.?

Special Studies and Investigations.-The Forest Service, besides practicing scientific forestry in the national domain, conducts a series of investigations in silviculture, embracing the collection of information concerning the growth and planting of trees; in the uses to which waste products of forest and mill may be put; statistics on mill products, prices of lumber, etc.; wood preservation and timber tests.

For several years there has been a strong opposition to the national conservation policy, both as to forestry and mineral lands, on the part of such States as Idaho, Montana, Washington, and Oregon, which have rather sparse populations and wish to attract new settlers by throwing open their natural resources to unreserved exploitation. As large parts of the national domain are located in these States the conservation policy naturally conflicts with local desires for quick development, even at the cost of the future. The members of Congress from these States have had placed in the forestry and land laws the proviso that no additional forestry reservations shall be created in certain western States except by Act of Congress. They have also succeeded in cutting down sericusly the appropriation for the forest service, and disastrous forest fires have resulted. In deference to this opposition the Secretary of Agriculture adopted in 1913 a regulation by which any local associations whose members include a majority of the residents making use of the national forests may select a committee to meet with the local forest officers and the latter recognize the committee in settling questions which arise between the forest service and the public. A further step was taken by the depart

1 There have thus far been planted less than 1,000,000 acres, of which probably less than half is successful, because the planting has been done without adequate knowledge as to where, what and how to plant.

2 Annual Report of the Forester, 1909.

ment in recommending to the President the restoration to entry, settlement and sale of certain reserved lands in the national domain which, after careful examination, proved to be of more value for agricultural than for forestry purposes. The department is also trying to increase the sale of timber from the national domain. For the year 1914 the receipts totalled $2,500,000.

The Minerals.-The mineral production of the United States is valued at $2,000,000,000 every year; this includes coal, iron, petroleum, natural gas, phosphates and other similar products. Together they form over 65% of the freight tonnage of the railways. It is estimated that the yearly waste in the extraction and treatment of these minerals exceeds $300,000,000, a large proportion of which might readily be saved. It is estimated that while the annual consumption of coal is now about five tons per capita, there is an annual waste of three tons per capita; that although the proportion of that wasted to that utilized has diminished, yet to date the aggregate amount of waste has exceeded the aggregate amount actually utilized. The waste is attributed to two general causes. The careless and wasteful methods of mining,1 and imperfect combustion in furnaces and fire boxes. The known supply of petroleum is about 15 or 20 billion barrels but new lands are yearly being exploited and production is increasing rapidly, but wastes are enormous. Our American supply threatens to become exhausted by the middle of the present century. Natural gas is the most perfect known fuel. The total yield per year is valued at about $62,000,000. It is estimated that an equal amount is wasted by being allowed to escape into the air. Phosphate rock is used extensively for fertilizers. In most countries supplies of this mineral are guarded carefully. The United States exports it in large quantities. As it becomes more necessary to conserve our soil by artificial means, the domestic demand and production increases. The known supply cannot long withstand the increasing demand. Mineral Laws.-Little effort has thus far been made to protect our mineral resources from waste or improper exploitation. The Act of 1910 authorizes the President to withdraw temporarily from settlement and sale any of the public lands in the United States or the district of Alaska and to reserve them for public purposes. This reservation continues until revoked by the President or by Act of Congress. On lands not so reserved entry and purchase may be

'The mining waste is largely due to leaving pure coal in the mines in the shape of pillars, partitions, etc., most of which becomes covered with broken stone and earth and is rendered unfit for future extraction. Much coal is left unmined because it contains impurities, such as earthy material, sulphur, etc. It is rich in carbon, however, and might be utilized to make gas, and operate gas engines, and in this way yield as much power as the same weight of pure coal used in steam engines. The mine waste now averages a little more than half the amount saved. The chief waste, however, is caused by imperfect combustion. Steam engines utilize on the average about 8% of the thermal energy of the coal. Internal combustion engines utilize less than 20%, and in electric lighting, less than 1% of the thermal energy is rendered available.

made under the law of 1873 which provides that an individual may acquire not more than 160 acres of mineral land and an association not more than 640 acres, at a price ranging from $10 to $20 per acre. The policy of the government on mineral lands should encourage their development and should seek to prevent the waste and misuse of lands that are developed.

Proposed Changes. In order to reach these ends the national conservation commission advocates:1

That coal lands should be disposed of under leases only, the lease to safeguard the interests of both the mining investor and the public. That the area which may be leased should be made greater than the amount that may now be purchased under the law of 1873. That no patents shall be issued for any public lands in the future, except with a specific reservation of coal on those lands. That surface lands may be open to cultivators of the soil, and that the miner may be allowed to acquire, with compensation to the owner, such parts of the surface as may be needed in producing coal. That leases of coal lands shall be made by the Secretary of the Interior under such regulations as he may deem wise for the protection of the public interest, in reasonably limited areas, and at such charges, and for such periods as he may deem reasonable.

The Lands. Within a century we may have to feed three times as many people as now, and the main bulk of our food supply must be grown on our own soil. Ultimately the present acreage may be nearly doubled by the clearing of millions of acres of brush and wooded land, and the reclamation of swamp and arid lands, But as our acreage is limited, and cannot increase with population it will be necessary to increase the yield per acre. The average yield of wheat in the United States is only 14 bushels per acre; in Germany 28 bushels, and in England 32 bushels. Our yield of oats is 30 bushels per acre, while England produces 45, and Germany 47. Although our soil is fertile, our mode of farming destroys its properties, and does not secure full crop returns. Soil fertility need not be diminished, but may be increased. Proper management should at least double our average yield per acre. The greatest wastes of our soil are due to preventable soil washing by floods and erosion, the growing of continuous crops year after year, and the neglect of fertilizers. Much of these wastes might be avoided by government action, both in educating the people and by a change in public policy. At the time of the adoption of the Constitution, the Federal Government came into possession of vast areas of what were then western lands through cession by the original thirteen States. This land, the "public domain," has been increased through the subsequent acquisition of lands, such as the Louisiana purchase, and the purchase of Alaska. The original public domain, including acquisitions of the United States proper and of Alaska 368,103,680 acres, making a total of over 1,800,000,000 acres, was 1,441,436,160 acres. The Constitu1 Report, page 91.

tion provides that Congress may dispose of the public lands, and in exercising this power Congress has enacted much legislation providing for their disposal, until in 1909, the total area, exclusive of Alaska, had been reduced to about 380,000,000 acres. Nearly all that is left is arid or unsuitable for settlement for other reasons. The administration and sale of public lands are in the hands of the General Land Office, a division of the Department of the Interior. The Commissioner of the General Land Office is the administrative head of this vast domain. The policy of the government with regard to the disposal of public lands may be roughly divided into three epochs: sale, development, and reservation. During the epoch of sale, the government disposed of its lands with the main purpose of procuring revenue, and with little or no regard to settlement thereon. The Revolution left the new country in debt, and it was believed by the statesmen of that day that the most important source of revenue would be the sale of lands. In 1796 the first general land act provided for the survey and disposal of public lands by public sale partly on credit, to the highest bidder. A later amendment provided that land might be sold at private sale, but at a minimum price of two dollars an acre. In 1820, sales on credit were abolished, and the minimum price was reduced to $1.25 per acre. During the thirties and forties there came about a gradual transition to the policy of development. Settlers began taking up the land and improving it, and it came to be recognized that people who had thus settled on and improved land should have a prior claim to purchase such land.1

The Homestead Law, 1862.-The theory that the public lands should be so disposed of as to encourage settlement and the development of the West, instead of for the purpose of raising revenue, crystallized in the homestead law of 1862, the most important of our general land acts. As now amended, any person 21 years old or over, who is a citizen, or who has declared his intention of becoming a citizen, and who is not already the owner of 160 acres, may make entry for 160 acres of unappropriated land. After such entry, he must establish his residence on the land within six months, and then must continue to reside upon, cultivate, and improve his land for a period of five years. At the end of this time, he may, upon furnish

1 This led to the Pre-emption Act of 1841 by which persons were allowed to settle on public lands, each settler being limited to 160 acres. By filing his claim at the time of settlement and by furnishing proof at the end of from one to three years (the time differing for different lands) that he had lived on and improved his land, he could then pay for and receive title to it. This preemption act was devised for the purpose of stimulating settlement and homemaking, but it still provided for payment for the land at the end of from one to three years. It merely recognized the rights of those who had settled or preempted. Although the spirit of this law was timely, it was poorly enforced and became the subject of much abuse. Claims could be proved up with little or no residence. Much was taken up by speculators. People were paid by wealthy "land-grabbers" to take up claims on government land, and then sell out the claim. The law was not repealed until 1891.

ing proof of compliance with the law, make final entry, and come into full possession, without paying anything except the land office fees. The serious weakness of this law has been the so-called commutation privilege; at the end of 14 months, a settler under the Act may have the right to purchase the land at a minimum price of $1.25 per acre, provided he can prove that he has lived on the land and improved it during that time. This commutation privilege has been much abused. The period of occupancy is so short that it often pays to make entry for speculative reasons, rather than for legitimate home-making. The Commissioner of the General Land Office has strongly advocated either the repeal of the commutation clause, or the lengthening of the time in which commutation proof can be made, from fourteen months to three years.1

Timber and Stone Act, 1878.-Among the other laws passed since 1862, perhaps the most important is the Timber and Stone Act of 1878. This law originally applied only to the States of Oregon, Washington, California and Nevada, but in 1892 was extended to all the public land. Under it, any person may purchase outright 160 acres of unappropriated non-mineral land which is unfit for cultivation, and valuable for timber or stone, at a minimum price of $2.50 per acre. Such purchaser must swear that the land is to be used by himself alone, and that he is not purchasing for speculative reasons. False swearing renders the person guilty of perjury and involves forfeiture of the land and the money paid therefor. Although innocent on its face, this law has also resulted in great abuse. It has been the means by which a few large interests have secured at a nominal price thousands of acres of the most valuable forest lands in the United States. Its repeal has often been urged. Other laws, such as the Reclamation Act and the Carey Act, etc., are described in the section on Reclamation.

The Era of Reservation. The third epoch in our public-land policy, that of reservation, begins with the conservation movement. The most important step taken has been the reservation of nearly 200,000,000 acres of timber land in the national forests. The policy is also manifest in the agitation to reserve water-power sites, to secure new laws on the disposal of coal-lands, and on the repeal or modification of the commutation clause of the Homestead Act. The recommendations on these subjects by the national conservation commission 2 are:

Every part of the public lands should be devoted to the use which will best subserve the interests of the whole people.

The classification of public lands for their administration in the interests of the people.

The timber, the minerals, and the surface of the public lands should be disposed of separately.

Public lands more valuable for conserving water supply, timber,

1909, Report, page 20.

2 Vol. 1, page 19.