and natural beauties or wonders, than for agriculture should be held for the use of the people except for mineral entry. Title to the surface of the remaining non-mineral public lands should be granted only to actual home-makers. Pending the transfer of title to the remaining public lands they should be administered by the Government and their use should be allowed in a way to prevent or control waste and monopoly. Conservation of Waters has to do with the regulation of the flow of streams so as to make them navigable, produce power, furnish water-supply to cities, and prevent floods or soil erosion. There are now 26,000 miles of navigable streams, and this mileage could be doubled by the improvement of waterways. As population increases and traffic becomes more dense, the possibilities of improvement become apparent, especially for the carriage of heavy and bulky articles of freight which can be transported much cheaper by water than by rail. The direct yearly damage by floods since 1900 has increased steadily from $45,000,000 to over $238,000,000. Floods also mean the waste of vast quantities of water. This could be largely obviated by the storage of waters in huge reservoirs in the upper branches of streams, and by the re-forestation of denuded catchment basins. The regulation of stream-flow also means a greater development of water power, a source of power which is becoming increasingly important. Under our present policy, water power sites have been neglected except by a few large corporations. Water Power. There are now being generated in the United States about 26,000,000 horse power by means of fuel, principally by the use of coal for steam boilers, and about 5,500,000 horse power by means of falling water. One hundred years ago, before the development of the steam engine, falling water was the only source of power, consequently all mills were located on streams. With the development of the steam engine and the exploitation of our coal resources, mills and factories have grown up without regard to the existence of water power.1 1 It has been cheaper to establish the factory near the market, and burn coal to generate power, than to build the factory near water power and transport the goods to market. The possibilities of water power development have accordingly been neglected. Since the application of electricity to industrial purposes in the eighties, however, and especially since the transmission of electricity over great distances, water power has come into greater demand, and there has thus been an increased use of such power as well as the purchase and holding of power sites on a large scale for future development and use. The greatest distance that electrical energy is now transmitted is 220 miles, but it may be carried even further. The best examples of the use of electricity generated by falling water are in the Pacific cities, Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Seattle, and the region about Niagara Falls. It is estimated that in New York State water power is at least $12.00 per horse power per year cheaper than steam power. As the chief item in the cost of steam power is the cost of coal, it follows that as coal becomes relatively more scarce and the price rises, the advantage of water power over steam for certain industries steadily increases. The available water power of the United States with conservation, approximates 200,000,000 horse power; in other words, we are now developing only about one. The disposal of water power sites has been merely an adjunct of the public land policy under the Homestead Act; it has generally been possible for individuals to acquire land containing valuable water power without extra payment. Thus it has come about that within recent years a few corporations have come into possession of an amount of undeveloped water power equivalent to one-third of that now in use. An investigation of the Bureau of Corporations showed that thirteen corporations hold this amount. The danger in such ownership is that it would render any future policy of conservation so costly as to be almost impracticable. This important phase of our water power development came before the public when, in 1908, the President vetoed a bill relating to a franchise for a dam on the Rainy River, Minnesota, on the ground that it prevented the best ultimate use of the river. In 1909 a similar bill permitting the construction of a dam on the James River in Missouri was vetoed and in a message to Congress at that time the danger of allowing the undeveloped water power to pass into the control of a few private interests was pointed out. In order to prevent this the President adopted the policy of withdrawing from entry public lands containing valuable power sites. The Act of June 25, 1910, already mentioned, allows the President in his discretion to withdraw from settlement or sale any of the public lands of the United States or Alaska and reserve them for water power sites, irrigation or other public purposes. The following recommendations covering water power sites were made by the Secretary of the Interior in 1910: The title to such power to be reserved to the Federal Government, and the power to be leased, for a period not to exceed 30 years, with option of renewal, under certain conditions. Lease to be forfeited unless a certain amount of power is developed within four years. A moderate rent to be charged subject to revision every 10 years. Reclamation. This technical term includes the draining of swamp lands and the irrigation of arid wastes. Although we generally think of reclamation as irrigation there is much more land that may be conserved for agricultural uses by drainage of swamps. The area of swamp is estimated at 75,000,000 to 80,000,000 acres, located principally in Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Arkansas, Michigan and Minnesota. By the Act of 1850, the United States granted to the several States the lands which were classified as fortieth of the power ultimately available, although much of this power cannot be used until far in the future because of the outlay of capital required for its development. The value of a stream for furnishing water power depends on its minimum flow. The difference between the maximum flow and the minimum flow of practically all our rivers is very great. The variation in flow of the Hudson River is as 100 to 1; and of the Delaware River at Port Jervis it is more than 300 to 1. The flow of the streams can be largely equalized by means of storing waters during flood seasons. This has already been done for comparatively small streams in New England. For the larger rivers its value is less. swamps. Over 65,000,000 acres were turned over to the States under this law and by them all but 5,000,000 acres were conveyed to private holders. Only about 1,300,000 acres remain in national possession at present. It is estimated that about 16,000,000 acres of swamp land, largely in the upper Mississippi Valley, have been reclaimed and converted into exceedingly profitable farm lands, and that the value of such reclaimed spaces is double or treble the original value plus the cost of drainage. Practically all the wet lands of the country can be reclaimed at profit, and the Conservation Commission estimates that they would form homes for a population of 10,000,000. Irrigation. To irrigate large sections of arid land, immense works are necessary, and private corporations had begun to attempt this as early as 1880. Most of the large ditches now in use were built by such corporations, many of the latter being bankrupted by the long period of waiting for profits. The individual farmers, however, flourished. Recently, the Federal Government has begun to participate actively in the reclamation of arid lands. The total amount of land under irrigation in the United States in 1908 was about 13,000,000 acres. The National Commission reported that irrigation was possible on about 45,000,000 acres. California contains 10,000,000 acres, Montana and Wyoming 6,000,000 acres each, and Idaho 5,000,000 acres of irrigable land. The Federal Government has passed three important laws for the encouragement of irrigation: (a) the desert land laws, (b) the Carey Act, and (c) the Reclamation Act. The original Desert Land Act was passed in 1877, and allowed entry on 640 acres of arid land, with the right to purchase at 25 cents per acre provided the entrant shall irrigate the land within three years. In 1891 the maximum amount of land was reduced to 320 acres, and it was further provided that an entrant must give proof that he has expended at least one dollar per acre per year for three years, before he can get title to the land. This Act was devised to encourage irrigation by individuals. It was poorly adapted for large-scale irrigation, and has led to some abuse. The Carey Act of 1895 provides that the Federal Government shall grant to each of the arid States such areas of desert land, not to exceed 1,000,000 acres, "as the State may cause to be irrigated, reclaimed, occupied, and not less than 20 acres of each 160 acres irrigated by actual settlers," within 10 years from the passage of the Act. In 1901 the time limit was extended. Further modification in 1908 granted to Wyoming and Idaho an additional 1 Rep. National Cons. Com. I, 83 and III, 361 et seq. 2 Rep. Nat'l Cons. Com. II, 67. The acreage in principal States was as follows: Idaho.. Colorado. 2,670,000 acres .1,850,000 66 1,000,000 acres. The conditions of this Act have been accepted by the following States: Colorado, Idaho, Montana, Nevada, Oregon, Utah, Washington and Wyoming. Up to July 1, 1908, over 2,000,000 acres had been turned over to the States. When the States acquire land under this law, they enter into contracts with corporations to reclaim the lands. When the irrigation works are completed, the lands are sold to individual settlers by the State, the payments for water-rights being made by such individuals, to the company building the works. We thus have reclamation of arid lands through co-operation of the Federal Government, the States, corporations, and settlers. The law seems to be working well in that it encourages legitimate home-making. Reclamation Act of 1902.-The most important step that the Government has taken was the passage of the law of June 17, 1902, under which the government itself undertakes the irrigation of lands still in the public domain. A special fund in the treasury is set aside out of the proceeds of sale of public lands, and is put in charge of the Secretary of the Interior, who makes surveys and examinations, and constructs projects of irrigation. He also operates such projects until charges for the water have been repaid,whereupon the burden of operation and maintenance passes to the owners of the land. The irrigation projects of the government have been confined mainly to those enterprises which are too large, too costly, or too slow in producing returns to tempt private or corporate investment. A separate bureau of the Interior Department, called the Reclamation Service, has been organized to take charge of this work. It has already completed vast systems of irrigation and has others in course of construction; these contemplate the ultimate irrigation of 2,700,000 acres. It is estimated between 1902 and 1910, the total receipts from the sale of public lands for irrigation were about $60,000,000, most of this having been expended in the reclamation of arid lands.1 In 1910 Congress authorized an issue of $20,000,000 of bonds to complete the existing irrigation plans.2 1 Some of the most important irrigation projects of the government are the Salt River system with an area of 272,000 acres and a tunnel two miles long, and a dam 1,000 feet long and 284 feet high, the Uncompaghre project in Colorado with an area of 146,000 acres and the Gunnison tunnel 51⁄2 miles long; other projects in Idaho covering 450,000 acres, and in South Dakota covering 100,000 acres. A comprehensive program of changes in Federal law was proposed by President Taft in his special message on Conservation to Congress on January 15, 1910: 1. The revision of the public land laws to correct abuses, and to make them available only for the bona fide settler. 2. The validation by Act of Congress of the withdrawal from public entry of public lands containing water power sites. 3. The careful classification of public lands. 4. The separation of mining rights from the title to the surface land; the surface land to be disposed of under the general land laws, but the minerals to be disposed of only by lease or royalty. C. A. VAN HISE: Conservation. REFERENCES Report National Conservation Commission. Annual Reports Secretary of Interior and Secretary of Agriculture especially the reports of the chief forester, chief of reclamation service and commissioner of general land office. Conservation of Natural Resources, Special Volume, May, 1909, The Annals of the American Academy, Philadelphia. QUESTIONS I. Why do we need a national policy of conservation? 2. How has the relative cost of labor and raw materials delayed this policy? 3. Would you favor leaving the whole matter of conservation to individuals and corporations or to the national and State governments and why? 4. Explain the historical origin of our present conservation movement. 5. Outline the special need of forestry regulation. 6. What has Congress provided on this subject? 7. What has the President done? 8. What have the States done? Summarize the Pennsylvania Forest Land and Timber Tax. 9. Summarize the organization of the forest service and explain its work. How are the national forests protected from fire? IO. II. 12. Give your impressions of the possibilities and needs of forest planting. resources? 13. How does the present Federal law regulate the private acquisition of mineral lands in the public domain? 14. Explain the proposals for further legislation. 15. Ought the government to give away or sell at a nominal price valuable ore and mineral lands and thereby encourage their quick development by a few large corporations or should it attempt to secure their development by leasing them for limited terms of years? Reasons. 16. Why is our public land policy of importance to the people? 17. What was the original land policy? 18. Explain the homestead law. 19. What are its practical defects? 20. 21. How are forest lands acquired under the Timber and Stone Act? 22. Explain the most important proposals for future legislation by the Conservation Commission. 23. What is the practical importance of a public water conservation policy? 24. How and why has water power increased in value in recent years? 25. How are water-power sites conserved by the Act of 1910? 26. Explain the chief proposals for additional laws on this subject. 27. What is meant by reclamation? 5. The renting of water power sites on a lease for not longer than 50 years with provisions for the development of such rented sites, and against their monopolization. 6. The continuation of the extremely important work of the Department of Agriculture in its study of soils. 7. The issue of $30,000,000 of bonds for the purpose of finishing the irrigation projects now under way. 8. An annual appropriation for the re-foresting of the sources of certain navigable streams, to preserve the regular flow of water. 9. The improvement of the Ohio River and the Upper Mississippi and ultimately of the lower Mississippi. Also the carrying out of a general scheme of waterway development. |