chiefly upon the activities of local trade bodies and manufacturers' associations. Once it obtained headway, however, it has spread with suprising rapidity in all the manufacturing States. A few of the more progressive labor union leaders have come out strongly in favor of it, and in 1908 a Committee was appointed by the American Federation of Labor, under the chairmanship of John Mitchell, to investigate the subject. Its report marks an epoch in the attitude of the labor union and strongly favors the technical education idea.1 1 "The inquiries of the committee seem to indicate that if the American workman is to maintain a high standard of efficiency, the boys and girls of the country must have an opportunity to acquire educated hands and brains, such as may enable them to earn a living in a self-selected vocation and acquire an intelligent understanding of the duties of good citizenship. "No better investment can be made by taxpayers than to give every youth an opportunity to secure such an education. Such an opportunity is not now within the reach of the great majority of the children of the wage-workers. The present system is inadequate and unsatisfactory. Only a small fraction of the children who enter the lower grades continue through the grades until they complete the high school course. The reasons which seem to be the prime cause for withdrawal are first, a lack of interest on the part of the pupils; and secondly, on the part of the parents, and a dissatisfaction that the schools do not offer instruction of a more practical character. The pupils become tired of the work they have in hand and see nothing more inviting in the grades ahead. They are conscious of powers, passions, and tastes which the school does not recognize. They long to grasp things with their own hands and test the strength of materials and the magnitude of forces. "Owing to past methods and influences, false views and absurd notions possess the minds of too many of our youths, which cause them to shun work at the trades and to seek the office or store as much more genteel and fitting. This silly notion has been shaken by the healthy influence of unions, and will be entirely eradicated if industrial training becomes a part of our school system, and in consequence of this system of training the youth will advance greatly in general intelligence, as well as in technical skill and in mental and moral worth, he will be a better citizen and a better man, and will be more valuable to society and to the country." A corresponding investigation was also made by the National Association of Manufacturers which in 1910 received from a special committee on Industrial Education a comprehensive report on the subject, strongly favoring all the various types of schools which have been described above. The Committee advocated, (a) The establishment of evening schools for training in common educational branches, and for special skill and shop practice in the mechanical trades. (b) Half day schooling each week for apprentices, the employer to pay for this time. (c) A part time system, with a double set of apprentices on the Fitchburg basis. The Committee points out that in all of these extension schools the fact that the young man was earning some wages would make it possible for many to extend their schooling who are now deprived of the opportunity. "All who are able to take the full course would, however, command higher wages at the end of the course." Especially interesting and noteworthy is the Committee's report on Industrial Education for girls. "The aim in the industrial education of girls must be a double aim, viz., preparation for the girl's occupation for immediate self-support and her preparation for home life in all its departments. Agricultural Education.-Both State and National governments are showing great willingness to promote the farmer's interest in education and an extensive series of courses have already been established with success. The aims of this work are: (a) To make the farmer more successful in his business, (b) To render farm life more attractive and increase its social pleasures and usefulness, (c) To fit the young women of farming communities for the management of their homes and keep them in touch with the intellectual progress of their day. We may see the popular need and demand for this instruction from the extent which it has reached. In the lower grades, agriculture is taught in all the common schools of 12 States, in only the country schools of 5 States, and is required for teachers' certificates in 16. State aid is already given to agricultural courses in high schools in 12 States. Higher courses are given in the agricultural colleges of 31 States and a majority of these also give "short courses" ranging from 2 to 12 weeks for adults. Fifty agricultural colleges in the various States are now receiving $25,000 each yearly from Congress for the promotion of agricultural training and many of these also wisely offer courses of training for teachers. Good examples of the State's effort to strengthen its agricultural work are seen in the laws of South Dakota and North Carolina, which provide for special county farm schools. Whenever a county is willing to undertake such expense the State contributes $2,500 yearly to the maintenance of the school. The courses provided include practical farm and housekeeping work and high school subjects. The buildings, courses and plant are under the management of a separate board of trustees. Newer Problems.-Besides the two questions of greater University usefulness and vocational training which the States are "These two aims must be kept in proper balance. Any system of industrial education for girls will be inadequate that does not provide for both aims. "Your committee therefore conceives that the desirable consideration in regard to girls is the promotion of independent industrial schools so planned that the duplex needs may be secured, and that special effort should be made to advance the science and the skill in cooking and housekeeping. "First. By the establishment of day industrial schools for girls whose main need is to prepare for industrial wage-earning pursuits. During this preparation for a trade however, considerable domestic training is a necessary part of the course. "Second. Courses for girls who wish to take as a vocation complete and thorough training in any or all branches of domestic science, housekeeping, and management of the home in all its branches. "Third. And possibly part-time schools for girls who are already engaged in wage-earning pursuits in the less skilled occupations. "Fourth. Evening classes for women who are employed in the trades who wish to advance themselves; and also for trade workers who wish to prepare for teaching in industrial schools. "Fifth. Evening classes for women and girls who wish to become better housekeepers." now in a fair way to solve, there is a third problem upon which little or nothing has as yet been done, the arrangement of existing means of education so as to secure better co-operation and "teamwork." This change is especially needed in the field of higher education where the waste of energy and resources is prodigal. The entire section East of the Mississippi is dotted with small institutions of higher learning, each with a handful of students, each struggling with an underpaid faculty and inferior facilities to keep its head above the waves of financial embarrassment and calling on its faithful alumni to make additional sacrifices in order that it may not fall behind its nearest competitor, and each finally in despair turning to its church board, or the Rockefeller foundation, or the State treasury, to make good the growing deficit. It would be difficult to overestimate the public service which these little institutions have performed in the past, but the growth of new subjects, the high cost of new equipment, and the increasing expense of education have placed them at such a serious disadvantage as to impair or destroy their usefulness. Is it now time to unite more closely these scattered resources? If many of these academies, colleges and "universities" could be closed up, or combined to form strong, vigorous, effective bodies, instead of the cause of education losing thereby, the students would be far better taught, the teachers better paid, the libraries, collections and equipment more complete and the general tone of all raised to a higher plane. Finally a fourth task is now appearing before our educational authorities with attractive possibilities,-the work of devoting individual attention to the needs of each student. Heretofore we have used typical American factory methods of production on a large scale, whenever the number of students required it. All have been put through a “mill" and have come out hall-marked as from a die. It is still possible to tell at first acquaintance the recent graduates of some colleges by the stamp which the institutions have placed upon their habits of mind. The same is true of many public schools. Those of our large cities, forced to handle much greater numbers than can be trained by the limited facilities at their command, must resort to wholesale methods, treating each pupil as a number rather than a person. Nor have we considered the future 1 An investigation in a New York High School reveals some interesting facts on the need of greater individual attention for school children. This investigation by Dr. C. W. Crampton was based on a classification of high school boys according to their physical maturity. It showed a greater variation in physical advancement than in years. The boys were classified as: First, those having arrived at puberty,-postpubescent; Third, boys not yet approaching maturity, prepubescent. They had all passed the work in the lower grades satisfactorily but in the high school only the most advanced did well. Few of the almost mature and none of the immature boys survived the strenuous high school work. From this Dr. Allen in his work on Civics and Health concludes that "physiological age, not calendar years or grammar school months, should determine the studies and careers of those who are in school, to offer them guidance and information in the choice of their vocations. The parents have had to make this decision, without further knowledge than their familiarity with the child's superficial likes and dislikes. That the parents' choice has not been an enlightened one is shown by the large proportion of misfits in business and the professions and trades. The great salient fact in this situation is that the State is not helping its people to find and use their best opportunities. There is needed in both schools and colleges some means of studying more closely the abilities, temperament and natural bent of each student, of setting before him and his parents the opportunities, the work to be done and the rewards to be gained in the group of callings for which he seems best fitted. A beginning has been made in the Vocational Bureau of the Boston schools, originated and directed by Mr. Meyer Bloomfield, other cities are rapidly following the precedent set by Boston and sporadic efforts are put forth in the colleges by individual faculty members; but this is a field in which general co-operation and exchange of experience would be especially useful and the benefits of a State-aided plan would far outweigh its trifling expense. We need as a part of every school system a department of vocational advice, with a trained expert at the State capital, working under the Superintendent and directing the local departments. Such a system would increase many fold the usefulness and value of our public schools. REFERENCES Report of State Superintendent. See especially also the Massachusetts, New York and Wisconsin Reports. A Summary of School Law. Usually published and distributed by the State School Board or Superintendent. C. A. MCCARTHY: The Wisconsin Idea. Annual Proceedings Industrial Education Association. C. R. RICHARDS: Special Report to U. S. Bureau of Education on Industrial Training. C. A. HERRICK: Commercial Education. Industrial Education: Jan., 1909, volume, The Annals of The American Academy. W. B. HUNTER: The Fitchburg Plan. A pamphlet description issued by Prof. Hunter. Current Reports on Agricultural and Industrial Training may be found in the annual reports of the U. S. Secretary of Agriculture and the Commissioner of Education. HART AND MCLAUGHLIN: Cyclopedia of American Government. O'LEARY AND PROSSER: Vocational Education References, Bulletin on Legislation for Vocational Education, U. S. Bureau of Education, 1915. QUESTIONS I. At a public meeting called to discuss school taxes the following argument is advanced in an effort to reduce school expenses: (a) The State and local the companions of children after the tenth year. Physiological strength and vitality, not ability to spell or to remember dates, should be the basis of grading for play and study and companionship among younger children." governments are overburdened with school charges,-"schooling" is a matter for those who can afford it,-let every one take as much as he can pay for in private institutions; (b) there are too many "fads" in education. Let every one be given the good old-fashioned "three r's" without the many additional "trimmings" that have been loaded on to our school system,-if the old system were maintained, school expenses would be materially reduced. What would be your attitude toward each of these arguments and how would you express it? 2. Give some idea as to the extent of the public school system and its expenses. 3. In your State how much is paid by the State treasury and how much by the local districts? 4. Is the individual spending a longer or a shorter time in school than formerly and how does this affect the kind of studies taught and the educational work of the State as a whole? 5. Outline the general plan of subsidy system followed in most of the States. 6. Explain the New York system and its advantages. 7. Explain the usual organization of the county school system. 8. How are colleges and universities being made more useful to all classes of people? 9. Outline the Wisconsin idea and explain why it was adopted in that State. 10. Why have the Western universities been able to charge lower fees than those of the East? II. How does a constitutional provision of a certain proportion of taxes for the University benefit the institution? 12. Resolved that the Wisconsin plan of university finances should be adopted in this State. Defend either side. 13. What is meant by vocational training and why has it become popular? 14. What is your view as to the advisability of vocational training in the public schools? 15. Explain the Massachusetts system of industrial training. 16. The Wisconsin system. Show the chief differences between the two systems. 17. Report on the system in your State. 18. Prepare a short essay on the subject of industrial training and include in it an outline of the various types of school required in a State system. 19. Outline the Fitchburg High School plan. What do you consider its advantages? 20. What are the views of manufacturers and labor unionists on industrial education? 21. Explain the purposes of State and national aid for agricultural education. 22. How do the States grant this aid? 23. What does the National Government do towards this end? 24. A meeting of representatives of the alumni of a number of small colleges in the central States is held to discuss the advisability of combination, on ac⚫ count of great financial deficits. What would be your stand on this question and why? Should the State support these colleges? 25. Explain the necessity for greater individual attention to school pupils and what can be done in this field. 36 |