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authority of the senses and understanding, whilst we invent and supply them with assistance.

xxxviii. The Idols and false Notions which have already pré ccupied the human Understanding, and are deeply rooted in it, not only so beset men's Minds, that they become difficult of access, but even when access is obtained, will again meet and trouble us in the instauration of the Sciences, unless mankind, when forewarned, guard themselves with all possible care against them.

xxxix. Four species of Idols beset the human mind: to which (for distinction's sake) we have assigned names : calling the first Idols of the Tribe; the second Idols of the Den; the third Idols of the Market; the fourth Idols of the Theatre.

xl. The formation of Notions and Axioms on the foundations of true Induction, is the only fitting remedy, by which we can ward off and expel these Idols. It is however of great service to point them out. For the Doctrine of Idols bears the same relation to the Interpretation of Nature, as that of the Confutation of Sophisms does to common Logic.

xli. The Idols of the Tribe are inherent in human Nature, and the very Tribe or race of man. For Man's Sense is falsely asserted to be the Standard of things. On the contrary, all the Perceptions, both of the Senses and the Mind, bear reference to man, and not to the Universe, and the human Mind resembles those uneven mirrors, which impart their own properties to different Objects, from which rays are emitted, and distort and disfigure them.

xlii. The Idols of the Den are those of each individual. For every body (in addition to the Errors common to the race of man) has his own individual Den or cavern, which intercepts and corrupts the light of Nature; either from his own peculiar and singular disposition, or from his education and intercourse with others, or from his reading,

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and the authority acquired by those whom he reverences and admires, or from the different Impressions produced on the mind, as it happens to be preoccupied and predisposed, or equable and tranquil, and the like: so that the spirit of man (according to its several dispositions) is variable, confused, and as it were actuated by chance; and Heraclitus said well that men search for Knowledge in lesser Worlds and not in the greater or common world.

xliii. There are also Idols formed by the reciprocal intercourse and society of man with man, which we call Idols of the Market, from the commerce and association of men with each other. For Men converse by means of language; but words are formed at the will of the generality; and there arises from a bad and unapt formation of words a wonderful obstruction to the mind. Nor can the definitions and explanations, with which learned men are wont to guard and protect themselves in some instances, afford a complete remedy: words still manifestly force the understanding, throw everything into confusion, and lead mankind into vain and innumerable Controversies and fallacies.

xliv. Lastly, there are Idols which have crept into men's minds from the various Dogmas of peculiar systems of Philosophy, and also from the perverted rules of Demonstration, and these we denominate Idols of the Theatre. For we regard all the systems of Philosophy hitherto received or imagined, as so many plays brought out and performed, creating fictitious and theatrical Worlds. Nor do we speak only of the present systems, or of the Philosophy and Sects of the ancients, since numerous other plays of a similar nature can be still composed and made to agree with each other, the causes of the most opposite errors being generally the same. Nor, again, do we allude merely to the general systems, but also to many Elements and Axioms of Sciences, which have become inveterate by tradition, implicit credence,

and neglect. We must, however, discuss each species of Idols more fully and distinctly in order to guard the human Understanding against them.

xlv. The human Understanding, from its peculiar nature, easily supposes a greater degree of order and equality in things than it really finds; and although many things in Nature be sui generis, and most irregular, will yet invent Parallels and Conjugates, and Relatives where no such thing is. Hence the Fiction, that all celestial bodies move in perfect circles, thus rejecting entirely spiral and serpentine lines (except as explanatory terms). Hence also the element of Fire is introduced with its peculiar Orbit, to keep square with those other three which are objects of our senses. The relative rarity of the Elements (as they are called) is arbitrarily made to vary in tenfold progression, with many other dreams of the like nature. Nor is this

folly confined to theories, but it is to be met with even in simple Notions.

xlvi. The human Understanding, when any proposition has been once laid down (either from general admission and belief, or from the pleasure it affords), forces everything else to add fresh support and confirmation; and although most cogent and abundant instances may exist to the contrary, yet either does not observe or despises them, or gets rid of and rejects them by some distinction, with violent and injurious prejudice, rather than sacrifice the authority of its first Conclusions. It was well answered by him who was shown in a temple the votive tablets suspended by such as had escaped the peril of shipwreck, and was pressed as to whether he would then recognise the Power of the Gods, by an inquiry; But where are the portraits of those who have perished in spite of their vows? All superstition is much the same, whether it be that of Astrology, Dreams, Omens, Retributive Judgment, or the like; in all of which the

Hence to Aphorism liii treats of the Idols of the Tribe.

deluded believers observe events which are fulfilled, but neglect and pass over their failure, though it be much more common. But this evil insinuates itself still more craftily in Philosophy and the Sciences; in which a settled maxim vitiates and governs every other circumstance, though the latter be much more worthy of confidence. Besides even in the absence of that eagerness and want of thought (which we have mentioned), it is the peculiar and perpetual error of the human understanding to be more moved and excited by Affirmatives than Negatives, whereas it ought duly and regularly to be impartial; nay, in establishing any true Axiom, the negative instance is the most powerful.

xlvii. The human Understanding is most excited by that which strikes and enters the mind at once and suddenly, and by which the imagination is immediately filled and inflated. It then begins almost imperceptibly to conceive and suppose that every thing is similar to the few objects. which have taken possession of the mind; whilst it is very slow and unfit for the transition to the remote and heterogeneous instances, by which Axioms are tried as by fire, unless the office be imposed upon it by severe regulations and a powerful authority.

xlviii. The human Understanding is active and cannot halt or rest, but even, though without effect, still presses forward. Thus we cannot conceive of any end or external boundary of the World, and it seems necessarily to occur to us, that there must be something beyond. Nor can we imagine how eternity has flowed on down to the present day, since the usually received distinction of an infinity, a parte ante and a parte post cannot hold good for it would thence follow that one infinity is greater than another, and also that infinity is wasting away and tending to an end. There is the same difficulty in considering the infinite divisibility of lines, arising from the weakness of our Minds, which weakness interferes to still greater disadvantage with the discovery

of causes. For although the greatest generalities in Nature must be positive, just as they are found, and in fact not causable, yet the human Understanding, incapable of resting, seeks for something more intelligible. Thus, however, whilst aiming at further progress, it falls back to what is actually less advanced, .namely, final causes; for they are clearly more allied to man's own nature, than the system of the Universe; and from this source they have wonderfully corrupted Philosophy. But he would be an unskilful and shallow philosopher, who should seek for causes in the greatest generalities, and not be anxious to discover them in subordinate objects.

xlix. The human Understanding resembles not a dry light, but admits a tincture of the will and passions, which generate their own system accordingly; for man always believes more readily that which he prefers. He therefore rejects difficulties for want of patience in investigation; sobriety, because it limits his hope; the depths of Nature, from superstition; the light of experiment, from arrogance and pride, lest his Mind should appear to be occupied with common and varying objects; paradoxes, from a fear of the Opinion of the vulgar; in short, his feelings imbue and corrupt his understanding in innumerable and sometimes imperceptible ways.

1. But by far the greatest impediment and aberration of the human Understanding proceeds from the dulness, incompetency, and errors of the Senses: since whatever strikes the Senses preponderates over every thing, however superior, which does not immediately strike them. Hence contemplation mostly ceases with sight; and a very scanty, or perhaps no regard is paid to invisible objects. The entire operation, therefore, of spirits enclosed in tangible bodies is concealed and escapes us. All that more delicate change of formation in the parts of coarser substances (vulgarly called alteration, but in fact a change of position

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