young teachers in particular are lacking in paternal solicitude and Christian gentleness, they ought to supplicate the Lord, without ceasing, to fill them with love for the young who are confided to them, and to deliver them from all harshness and carnal sufficiency.

3. The teacher should learn to govern himself, without which he can not properly govern others.

4. A teacher should maintain discipline over his pupils, and should exhort and punish them when necessary; nevertheless, education should not be hard and severe, but gentle and paternal.

5. A teacher ought never to punish a child in anger. 6. A teacher ought not to be ill-humored, but cordial and kind, like a father.

7. Children ought not to be punished for little faults inherent in their age, but should be encouraged to be more careful.

8. A Christian teacher should beware of becoming the occasion of disorder which he is to punish.

9. Children should not be abused with harsh epithets. It is contrary to the spirit of Christianity.

10. A child ought never to be scolded because it can not understand. If it is dull of comprehension, the teacher should redouble his efforts in its behalf.

11. A teacher should study the disposition of his pupils, as delicate and gentle natures are not to be treated like coarse and hardened natures.

12. In avoiding too great severity the teacher should not fall into the opposite extreme, and become the sport of the children.

13. With youth over fifteen years of age the teacher should abstain from harsh words, threats, and blows, by

which they may become imbittered. It is better to take them separately, talk to them kindly-sometimes even pray with them. If these means are fruitless, let them be brought before the school board, or punished in the presence of a colleague."

Francke's long and useful life was crowned with a fitting close. He bore his last sickness with Christian resignation. The words of the patriarch Jacob were often upon his lips, "Lord, I wait for thy salvation." At the last hour his wife, the faithful companion of many years, stood by his side. "The Saviour will be with you," she said. "There is no doubt of it," he replied. These were his last words; and, in the midst of the hymns and prayers of assembled friends, he peacefully fell asleep June 8, 1727.

6. ABSTRACT HUMAN EDUCATION.

The eighteenth century witnessed a new movement which has been characterized as abstract human education.* In general, it ignores or rejects revealed religion, and bases its educational principles on the purely natural. Though as one-sided as the theological tendency, it has the great merit of stimulating a careful study of man in the interests of correct educational methods. In this way it rendered invaluable service to the cause of educational progress.

This movement exhibited two entirely different tendencies the realistic tendency, which emphasized the study of Nature, and the humanistic tendency, which

* The German expression is “abstract menschliche Erziehung."

emphasized the study of words. Both of these tenden cies, which had been in conflict to a greater or less degree during the preceding century, agreed in eliminating revealed religion from education.

This dual movement admits of an easy explanation. In the great process of human development extremes tend to beget extremes. The path of human progress is zigzag. Throughout the seventeenth century, which we have just considered, a mere formal religion remained in the ascendency. It continued the controlling factor in education, in spite of the attacks of the pietists and educational reformers. It long thwarted the confident expectations of Comenius. But a religion, which has lost its vital power, can not hold a permanent ascendency over the world. Its weakness exposes it to attack. A skeptical movement, known as Deism, arose in England, and gradually extended over the whole of Europe. Its principal tenets, as given by Kahnis, are the following: "Christianity is a positive religion, like Judaism and Mohammedanism. It is a prejudice which the Christians have, in common with the Jews and Mohammedans, to imagine that their religion is the only true one. That which separates these religions is the positive, but that is merely the unessential—the shell. In the main point, all positive religions are at one. This main point is natural religion-the religion of sound common sense." Deism rejected the supernatural in religion. As its principles had no other than a speculative basis, they were lacking in certainty and authority, and in many cases prepared the way for the grossest atheism. From the deistic or skeptical stand-point the current education of the time, unduly controlled by nar

row ecclesiastical influences, was judged defective. Educational reformers representing the skeptical tendency arose, and new movements were inaugurated.

(A.) ROUSSEAU.

There are few men who have exerted a greater influence upon education than the celebrated author, JeanJacques Rousseau. He was born at Geneva, in 1712, the son of a poor watchmaker. As a child he was feeble in body and shy in disposition, but at the same time he was endowed with remarkable vivacity in thought and feeling. He was exceedingly fond of reading, in which he was encouraged by his father; and, among other works, many of which were worthless, he early devoured Bossuet, Ovid, and Plutarch. "Thus began to be formed within me," he says, "that heart, at once so proud and so tender, that effeminate but yet indomitable character which, ever oscillating between weakness and courage, between indulgence and virtue, has to the last placed me in contradiction with myself, and has brought it to pass that abstinence and enjoyment, pleasure and wisdom, have alike eluded me."

It is not worth while to follow him through the unimportant events of his life. His boyhood was by no means worthy of imitation; and in his "Confessions," a work written with the utmost frankness late in life, he does not attempt to conceal theft and lying. He ran away from an engraver to whom he had been apprenticed, and during the remainder of his life he was a wanderer who enjoyed but temporary seasons of repose. Throughout his career he was subject to petty misfortunes and persecutions, but his immoralities repress our

sympathy for his sufferings and lessen our admiration for his genius. His life was a singular paradox. "There is in our literary history," says an interesting French author, "a celebrated writer who offers the singular combination of grandeur in his works and of baseness in his conduct; it is Jean-Jacques Rousseau. Full of enthusiasm for the beautiful and the good, he defended with invincible logic and passionate eloquence the eter nal principles of justice and morality, and he committed the most shameful and culpable acts. This man, who wrote admirable pages upon domestic affection, friendship, and gratitude, chose a companion unworthy of him, placed his children in a foundling hospital, and showed himself unjust and harsh toward his friends, and ungrateful toward his benefactors. And all the time doing wrong, he believed himself moral, because he loved virtue. 'I do evil,' he said, 'but I love good. My heart is pure."

Rousseau has exerted his influence upon education through a single work, half treatise and half romance. It is, as he himself says, "a collection of thoughts and observations, without order and almost without connection." It is entitled "Emile, or concerning Education." In many respects a radical book, it is flung defiantly in the face of prevalent usage. "Go directly contrary to custom," he says, "and you will nearly always be right." The work abounds in mingled truth and error, and needs to be read with great discrimination; but many of its truths are fundamental, and ever since their publication they have been gradually forcing an entrance into educational practice. "Not Rousseau's individual rules," says the great German Richter, "many of which may