of philosophy that it had scarcely any sympathy left for other matters.”

To Plato belongs the honor of first subjecting education to a scientific examination. This he does in his "Republic"-a Utopian work sketching an ideal state, yet containing withal many noble thoughts. Though possessing considerable interest, his views remained without any perceptible effect upon Grecian education, and may therefore be passed over briefly.

According to Plato, the soul consists of three parts: "1. The appetite, which is wild, but capable of being tamed; 2. The spirit, the element of courage, which may be enlisted on the side of either good or evil; 3. The philosophic element"-the source of wisdom, culture, and love. "The duty of education is to control the appetite, and so to balance the other elements of the soul that each may tend to the perfection of the other."

Plato made education the business of the state, reminding us of the Persian and Spartan systems. All interests, whether of the family or of the individual, were subordinated to the state. A community of wives, children, and property was advocated. A caste system was proposed, the people being divided into rulers, warriors, and common people. Of these, only the first two were to be educated. Moral education was made prominent. Tales and myths were to be made vehicles of moral instruction, and whatever in poetry or sculpture tended to immorality was to be rigidly excluded from the state. The cardinal virtues were courage, truthfulness, self-control, honor to parents, and love for one's fellow-citizens. The course of study embraced arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, harmonics, and philosophy

which was looked upon as the queen of all sciences. Gymnastics was commended, not simply for bodily development, but also for its happy influence upon the soul. Dancing was added to the classical cycle of gyınnastic exercises, though such forms as might be prejudicial to good morals were condemned. Music was highly commended. Dramatic and epic poetry were to be banished from the republic. "To lyric poetry," says Ritter, "he is more favorably disposed, but requires that it, abstaining from all seductive ornament or sentiment, and recommending nothing indecent or unbecoming, should only sing, with due reverence, the praises of gods and heroes. This species of poetry he allows to be cultivated in the state under the direction of authority, which is experienced in good."

(F.) ARISTOTLE.

We conclude our inquiry with a study of the profoundest thinker that Greece produced. This is Aristotle, whom an able German writer has called "the Alexander of the intellectual world." He was born at Stagira, in Macedonia, 384 B. c. In youth he went to Athens, where he was a member of Plato's school for twenty years. His eminent abilities soon became the subject of remark, and he was called by the philosopher "the intellect of his school." Unlike his great theorizing teacher, Aristotle was a careful and practical investigator, and he succeeded by his genius and industry in compassing the whole circle of knowledge as it then existed. He created the science of logic, and made valuable contributions to many other departments of learning.

At the age of forty-seven, when his fame as a philosopher had become established, he was appointed teacher of Alexander the Great. He enjoyed the highest esteem of both Philip and Alexander, and received at their hands many marks of distinguished favor; among these may be mentioned the restoration of his native town, Stagira, which had been destroyed by war, and the erection there of a gymnasium for his philosophical lectures. Though having the royal pupil under his charge less than four years, he did much in molding his mind and character, and the effects of his teaching were afterward discernible in the conqueror's life.

When about fifty, Aristotle returned to Athens and opened a school known as the Lyceum. He lectured to a circle of disciples as he walked about the shady avenues; and this fact has given to his school of philosophy the name Peripatetic. In the morning he gave to select pupils a lecture upon some abstruse subject; in the afternoon he delivered a popular lecture to a wider circle of hearers. "As to the unfavorable reports of the character of Aristotle," says Ritter, "we have already weighed the greater part of them; they by no means justify any imputation of low or dishonorable feelings. In his works, on the other hand, we see him the calm and sober inquirer, who does not, like Plato pursue a lofty ideal, but keeps carefully in view the proximately practicable, and is not easily misled into any extravagance, either of language or of thought. His principal object is to examine truth under all her aspects, never to step beyond the probable, and to bring his philosophical system in unison with the general

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opinions of men, as supported and confirmed by common sense, observation, and experience."

Notwithstanding his greatness, Aristotle was hemmed in by the limitations of his age. The end of education with him is the useful and happy citizen. While attaching undue importance to the state, as Plato had done, he still recognized, in some degree, the rights of the family and the individual. The state was to maintain a general supervision over education, while the details were to be left to individual preference and judgment. According to the prevalent view of the time, women and slaves were to be shut out from the benefits of education. The order of education should be-1. Physical; 2. Moral; 3. Scientific. The purpose of physical training, however, was not, as in Sparta, the development of brute force, but the production of healthful vigor and manly courage. In moral education, correct habits were to precede theoretic teaching, the child being brought up in the exercise of the virtues that were to form later the matter of precept. Dialectics, or the art of disputation, was the basis of scientific training, since it served as a mental gymnastic and led to the acquisition of the philosophic sciences. Drawing was insisted on as a useful means of developing the sense of the beautiful. Mathematics in its higher forms, as having no connection with the moral nature of man, was not regarded as of much importance. Rhetoric, philosophy, and politics received due attention. "Music, accompanied with singing, so far as it is subservient to education, ought to be encouraged by reason of its great influence on manners, in which respect, however, its application is very narrow. But it has other uses; it tends

to purify the passions of the soul, as is especially the case with tragedy, and is good for recreation and for a resource in leisure." The acquisition of knowledge was looked upon as naturally agreeable, and the method of proceeding from the known to the unknown, from the concrete to the abstract, was clearly pointed out.

The theories of these three great thinkers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, made no visible impress upon the educational practice of their time. This study of their views has been interesting and necessary only as showing the height to which the heathen intelligence could attain. The educational theories of these philosophers are of no great use to us, except as containing here and there a valuable hint and preparing the way for a fullorbed conception of education. The heathen world could not produce a system of education suited to the wants of Christian civilization.

2. ROME.

Ancient Rome has a history extending through more than a thousand years. During this long period it passed through various stages of development. From a condition of weakness and barbarism, it rose to be the imposing mistress of the world and the chief representative of human progress. It gathered into its arms the elements of Grecian and Oriental culture, and, as its end drew nigh, it scattered them freely over the rest of Europe. Rome has been the bearer of culture to the modern world. To trace the course of education through the whole extent of Roman history would prove tedious, and bring us no compensating advantage. Our inquiry