intercourse with each other began to follow certain rules, which commonly originated in the mode last mentioned above; and many of them became generally recognized as the proper guide in international intercourse. These customs came, at length, to be called the Law of Nations. Writers of eminence carefully investigated them, and studied the principles on which they were founded. These writers are held to be authorities as to this law, and the principles they have laid down are generally acknowledged, by civilized nations in modern times, as the standard of International Law.

3. There is no possibility, in the present state of the world, of organizing a tribunal with authority to impose penalties for violations of this law by individual nations; though it is to be hoped that may some time be the case. The only representative of such a tribunal is the general opinion of the civilized world; and nations must, themselves, act as supreme judges and executors of the law as it applies (or as they choose to hold it as applying) to their disputes. When they cannot come to an agreement with their adversaries, they commonly Declare War, and endeavor to right themselves by force.

4. This is not, by any means, an equitable or satisfactory way of avenging wrongs. The aggressor may be the strongest; and the offense, in that case, will be greatly increased. It causes the penalty, in any case, to fall very heavily on many innocent heads, and produces lamentable and wide-spread desolation. Yet it is sometimes better than tame submission; and the right to make war when grievous wrong has been suffered, or indignity offered to the national honor, is recognized by the Law of Nations; and certain rules are applied by it as a guide in honorable warfare. There is nothing but self-respect, and respect for the opinions of the civilized world, to keep belligerent nations within the limits of these rules. They are, however, continually becoming better defined, and Public Opinion has more and more weight in each succeeding generation.

5. Some of the more important features of International Law (or the Law of Nations) are, that every nation has the right

to regulate her own internal affairs without interference from others, unless some of these regulations may seriously affect the interests of a foreign power; that national boundaries are to be respected; that bodies of water lying within a national territory, and the seacoast for three miles from the shore, are under its exclusive jurisdiction; and that a nation may take measures to protect its own citizens who may be traveling or doing business in other countries, unless they violate its laws; and then it may first examine the case before the accused is given up for trial and punishment to a foreign court. There are many other rules. These will serve as examples.

6. One class of these laws requires special mention, because they are often more carefully defined than most other international customs. These are Neutrality Laws. Those now in force in the United States were enacted in 1818. They are only a formal recognition by our highest legislative authority-Congress-of the Law of Nations as generally accepted by other governments. The leading regulations are, that our citizens shall not interfere, but at their own risk and peril, in contests between other nations; that no armament shall be fitted out in our territory for the purpose of making war on any power with which we are at peace; and making it unlawful for an American vessel to carry "Contraband of War" (or war material) to either of two warring nations. It forbids granting to one nation rights not allowed to the other with which it is at war. Neutrality Laws are designed to avoid causes of unfriendly feeling, and to prevent the improper interference of our citizens in the quarrels of other nations.

7. Our government believed itself wronged in the course. of the recent Civil War by England. It claimed that the English government had not been at proper pains to preserve a neutral attitude; and complaint being made, the two governments agreed to appoint a Commission to examine and arbitrate the case—the decision, whatever it might be, to be accepted by both parties. This was done, at Geneva, in Switzerland; and probably prevented a war between the two countries. It

is to be hoped that all national disputes may hereafter be settled in this reasonable and Christian way.

8. Treaties are international laws binding on the two or more parties making the contract; and our Foreign Representatives (as ambassadors, ministers resident, etc.) deal with International Law as arranged by treaties and the Laws of Nations.

CHAPTER XIV.

RELATION OF GOVERNMENT TO RELIGION.

1. Religion has always exerted so much influence on men that it has been customary for governments to assume more or less control over it; and, as the leaders of religious systems have commonly been glad to get the support of governments, there has usually existed what is called a "Union of Church and State," the government endorsing the views of some special religious system, and giving more or less support to its officials; sometimes, even refusing to tolerate any other; or, if tolerated, reserving its special recognition and favors, and whatever material support it chose to give to religious establishments to that termed National, alone; that church returning the favor by using its great influence with the people to support the measures of the government.

It is very distasteful to many men who differ from the views of the favored system to be required to support it, and to be frowned upon by the government if they do not feel inclined to connect themselves with it.

2. The Founders of our government were wise enough to leave the people to arrange religious questions according to their pleasure. They were not unbelievers in religion, but thought, as most of our citizens now think, that entire liberty should be left to all to act in religious matters as they felt able and inclined. All religious systems are equally tolerated-no government support is given specially to any. Some people

do not approve of religious oaths (an affirmation in the name of God, or calling God to witness that what is said is true,) and from such persons a solemn affirmation or statement, answers the purposes of the law.

Although neither the Constitution, nor Congress in its laws, prescribe a religious profession of any kind, and the Constitution prohibits Congress from making laws respecting the establishment of a State religion, or interfering with the free exercise of it, and declares that "no religious test shall ever be required, as a qualification to any office or public trust, under the United States," neither do they discourage religion. Respect is shown, in many ways, to religion. Congress usually appoints a chaplain, now of one denomination, and now of another; it allows chaplains in the army and navy, and provides them a salary; and, of late years, the President recommends a day of National thanksgiving to God once a year, for the blessings we enjoy, and sometimes proclaims a day of fasting and prayer. It shows all due respect to the religious beliefs among the people, but leaves all free to practice any form of it, or to reject them all.

3. Entire religious liberty is a rarity in the world, and is much more favorable to the purity and weighty influence of religious teachings than a State religion. Many of the colonies that afterwards became States, were founded by persons who fled from religious persecution in the countries of the Old World, and multitudes have emigrated here to secure freedom in the enjoyment of their religious views and practices, or even entire freedom to reject all religion if they could not believe in any, though that is seldom the case.

Our example has been much approved and is having much influence on other nations.

TOLERATION OF OPINIONS,

4. Is characteristic of the American Government. Liberty of the Press, or freedom to state any views a man may entertain, is as complete as liberty in religious matters. Very severe things are sometimes written and published of the government,

and sometimes things that would do much harm if they were generally believed, and no notice is taken of it, unless some one sees fit to contradict it or prove it to be incorrect.

If a man injures another's character by writing things that are false, he can be tried, and, if convicted, punished by the courts. Vile and indecent writings are prohibited; but otherwise there is entire freedom. Falsehood and error are left to be destroyed in a natural way by the truth.

This is a great gain to the truth since error has often been. protected, in other countries, by government authority, on the conviction that it was the truth, to the great prejudice of truth itself.

5. Although, during the Civil War, there was some restraint put upon the freedom of publishing things that might be hurtful to the government, the instances were not very numerous, and, at the close of the war the spirit of toleration was shown in a way very creditable to our people, and very praiseworthy in our government, which left the way open to a speedier reunion of sentiment and sympathy in the sections that had fought each other so bravely.

The brave and resolute can afford to be just to each other, and to allow entire freedom of opinion to all. In this respect we have fairly earned the right to call ourselves a nation of freemen.

CHAPTER XV.

CHAPLAINS.

1. Regard to the religious habits of a large number of the people has led Congress to appoint, or permit the appointment, of chaplains to supply such religious instruction and services in the army and navy as might be felt desirable by those concerned.

Though chaplains are not properly officers of the government, they are employees of it, for they are appointed by its