their leisure in following after lewd women; thieves, those that insult citizens, players at dice-having been properly warned and not reforming, besides the ordinary punishment provided by law for those misdemeanors, shall be deprived of their academical privileges and expelled. These prohibitions give us a clear insight into the university life of the time, for it was not worse at Vienna than at Paris and elsewhere.

L. Summary

Education in this period did not have a complete and beautiful development. It was unworthily enslaved to other interests, and both in theory and practise it showed its servile condition. Yet the long, dark period of the middle ages was not without blessings for mankind. It was the winter that gathers strength for the blossoming of spring and the fruit-bearing of summer. The foundations of future progress were laid. The Germanic nations were placed in possession of Christianity and civilization. One-sided tendencies worked themselves out, and have since remained for the instruction of our race. The work of this period was largely negative. If the middle ages have not taught us what to do in education, they have at nu. least showed us a good deal to avoid. And, as the history of our race proves, this negative work has always to be done before humanity makes any signal progress. Heathenism had to exhaust its intellectual strength before the world was ready to accept Christianity.

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IV

EDUCATION FROM THE RISE OF PROTESTANTISM TO THE PRESENT TIME

GENERAL SURVEY.-The Protestant movement of the sixteenth century was not an isolated event. There were many concurring circumstances which prepared the way for it, and gave it power in the world. Toward the end of the middle ages there was a remarkable growth of national life and of national feeling. The great inventions and discoveries of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries exerted a favorable influence upon the intellectual development of Europe. The invention of gunpowder, as soon as it led to the use of firearms, helped to bring about a salutary change in the organization of society. It destroyed the military prestige of the knightly order, brought the lower classes into greater prominence, and contributed to the abolition of serfdom. The discovery of America, and of a sea-passage to the East Indies, enlarged the circle of knowledge. Correct views of the earth supplanted the Ptolemaic system. The commercial activity of the world began to move in new directions, and to assume enlarged proportions. The invention of printing, about the middle of the fifteenth century, supplanted the tedious and costly method of copying books by hand, multiplied the sources of knowledge, and brought them within the reach of a larger circle of readers. All these circumstances, to which must be added the revival of classical learning, were so many levers that cooperated in lifting the world to a higher intellectual plane.

. THE REVIVAL OF LEARNING AND THE HUMANISTS

ORIGIN. The revival of learning was so intimately related to the Reformation, and to the educational advancement dating from that time, that it calls for consideration in some detail. It had its beginning in Italy. The three great Italian writers of the fourteenth century-Dante, Boccaccio, and Petrarch-may be regarded as its pioneers. Dante was familiar with the Latin classics, and in the Inferno it is Virgil who serves him as guide. Boccaccio was distinguished for his scholarship. He was zealous in collecting books and manuscripts, and is said to have been the first Italian who imported a copy of the Iliad and the Odyssey from Greece. Petrarch was a zealous student of Latin and Greek antiquity. He traveled through Italy, France, Spain, and Germany in search of manuscripts, some of which he copied with his own hand. In 1396, Manuel Chrysoloras, a native Greek, was appointed teacher by the city of Florence, where he introduced the literary treasures of his country through public lectures.

A NEW IMPULSE.-Though there had previously been, as we have just seen, a turning of thought to Roman and Greek antiquity, the movement received a mighty impulse in 1453, when the capture of Constantinople by the Turks drove mat Greek scholars to Italy. The way had been prepared for them in the revived interest in Greek learning. They were accordingly welcomed by noble patronage, and under its fostering care became for a time the teachers of Christian Europe. The interest in antiquity deepened into enthusiasm. Libraries were founded and manuscripts collected with great ardor. Several of the popes, without

suspecting danger, became generous patrons of ancient learning: Nicholas V founded the celebrated Vatican Library, and collected for it a large number of Greek and Latin manuscripts; and under Leo X Rome became a center of classical scholarship.

EXPANSION OF THE MOVEMENT.-But this new movement was not to be confined to Italy. Eager scholars from England, France, and Germany sat at the feet of Italian masters in order afterward to bear beyond the Alps the precious seed of the new culture. During the reign of Lorenzo de Medici, several Oxford students, among whom were Linacre and Grocyn, visited Florence to complete their studies. Linacre received instruction along with Lorenzo's own children, one of whom afterward became Leo X. Returning to England, they gave a fresh impulse to the study of the Greek language and literature. German scholars, like Peter Luder and Samuel Karoch, introduced the new learning into the German universities. Various cities-Strasburg, Nuremberg, Augsburg, and others--became centers of culture, where literature and art were pursued with engrossing ardor.

DIFFERENT RESULTS.-The revival of learning did not everywhere follow the same lines of development and produce similar results. In Italy classical learning became an end in itself; and hence, while enlarging and refining culture, it tended to paganize its adherents. Ardor for antiquity became intoxication; Athens was reproduced in Christian Rome. Unbelief became so prevalent that the Tenth Lateran Council judged it advisable to reaffirm the doctrine of the immortality of the soul by a special

decree.

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Among the Teutor nations, particularly in Germany,

Holland, and England, the revival of learning produced far more salutary results than in Italy. The deep moral earnestness of the Teutonic race preserved it from pagan debasement. After a time the new learning was cultivated with as much zeal north as south of the Alps, but its results were utilized in the interests of a purer Christianity. The Greek and Hebrew Scriptures were studied as well as the Latin and Greek classics. Critical editions of the Old and New Testaments were published by able scholars, and by this means, as many believed, theological dogma was placed on a more assured foundation.

A. Agricola

BIOGRAPHICAL FACTS.-This able scholar, the father of German humanism, was born in 1443 near Groningen, Germany. His real name was Husmann (that is, houseman or husbandman), which, according to a custom of the humanists, he Latinized into Agricola. For a time he was a pupil of Thomas à Kempis; then he passed several years at the University of Louvain; subsequently he studied at Paris, and afterward in Italy, where he attended lectures by the most celebrated literary men of the age. His learning and eloquence gave him a wide reputation; and, upon his return to Germany, several cities and courts vied with one another in the effort to secure his services. At length, upon the solicitation of Dalberg, Bishop of Worms, who was an old and intimate friend, he established himself at Heidelberg. He divided his time between private studies and public lecturing; and, through his labors and influence, he was largely instrumental in transplanting the learning of Italy into his native land. He understood French and Italian, and set great store by his mother-tongue. At the

age of