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to the education of girls, in which he frequently borrows from Fénelon. He fails to rise above the limitations of his time, and would, as a rule, restrict a girl's education to reading, writing, arithmetic, and history. She should study Latin only in exceptional cases. Rollin recognized the intellectual ability of girls: "A difference of sex," he said, "does not in itself create a disparity in understandings." But inasmuch as her sphere is the household, woman does not need, he held, a knowledge of the languages and the sciences. To quote his words, women were never designed by Providence to instruct nations, to govern kingdoms, to make war, to administer justice, to plead causes, or to practise physic. Their empire extends no farther than over the house, and is confined to functions not less useful but less laborious than those of men; and more suitable to the softness of their character, the delicacy of their constitutions and their natural inclination. Hence the emphasis of a girl's education should be placed on her knowledge of domestic affairs: Among other things her mother ought to teach her (1) to adjust her expenses to her income; (2) not to buy on credit; (3) to pay her servants promptly; (4) to audit accounts; and (5) to set apart something for the poor.

SCHOOL MANAGEMENT.-Rollin discusses at considerable length the best methods of interesting and controlling pupils. His most important points have been summarized as follows:

"1. The first duty of the teacher is to study well the genius and character of children. To wish to place them on the same level, and to subject them to a single rule, is to force nature.

"2. In education the highest skill consists in knowing how to unite, by a wise temperament, a force that

restrains children without repelling them, and a gentleness that wins without enervating them.

"3. The short and common method of correcting children is with the rod; but this remedy sometimes becomes a more dangerous evil than those which one seeks to cure, if it is employed without reason and moderation.

"4. The only vice, it seems to me, that deserves severe treatment is obstinacy in evil, but an obstinacy voluntary, determined, and well defined.

"5. The teacher ought never to punish in anger, especially if the fault which he punishes concerns him personally, such as a want of respect or some offensive speech.

"6. Cuffs, blows, and other like treatment, are absolutely forbidden to teachers. They ought to punish only to correct, and passion does not correct.

". It is a quite common fault to make use of reprimands for the slightest faults which are almost inevitable to children. This breaks the force of reprimands, and renders them fruitless.

"8. We should avoid exciting the spite of children by the harshness of our language, their anger by exaggeration, their pride by marks of contempt.

"9. It is necessary always to show children a substantial and agreeable end which may hold them to work, and never pretend to force them by a direct and absolute authority.

"10. We should run the risk of discouraging children if we never praised them when they do well. Although praises are to be feared because of vanity, it is necessary to make use of them to encourage children, without cultivating that vice.

"11. Rewards are not to be neglected for children, and although they are not, any more than praise, the princi

pal motive to make them act, yet both may become useful to virtue, and a strong incentive to its practice.

"12. It is a great good fortune for young people to find masters whose life is a continual lesson; whose actions do not belie their teaching; who practise what they preach, and shun what they censure; and who are admired more for their conduct than for their instruction."

J. Francke

PIETISM.-Pietism is a term of reproach fixed upon a worthy movement in the Protestant Church in the direction of a consistent Christian life. This movement was opposed to the formality and inconsistency characteristic of the period of "dead orthodoxy." It was begun by Philip Jacob Spener, a man of fine natural abilities, large attainments, and deep spirituality. As leading pastor at Frankfort-on-the-Main, he began, in 1670, to hold meetings at his house for the promotion of biblical knowledge and the cultivation of evangelical piety. He continued his reformatory efforts at Dresden as chief court-preacher, and afterward at Berlin as provost of the Church of St. Nicholas. "A return from scholastic theology to the Holy Scriptures as the living source of all saving knowledge," says Kurtz ; a conversion of the outward orthodox confession into an inner living theology of the heart, and a demonstration thereof in true piety of life-these were the ways and means by which he proposed to effect the desired reform." The Pietistic movement gave rise to a prolonged controversy, whose general influence, in spite of much bitterness and persecution, was favorable to Christian life. in the Church.

BIOGRAPHICAL.-Pietism was brought into relation with

education chiefly by August Hermann Francke, who as a successful and consecrated Christian teacher exerted a wide influence. He was born at Lübeck, on the Baltic, in 1663. He received his preparatory training at the Gymnasium of Gotha, after which he attended the universities of Erfurt and Kiel, studying metaphysics, natural science, history, languages, and theology. After leaving the universities he spent a year and a half at Gotha, during which time he read the Hebrew Bible through seven times. In 1684 he went to Leipsic, where his lectures on the Old and New Testaments, differing widely from the cold, logical processes of the universities, attracted considerable attention. He sympathized with Spener's views, and joined the Pietistic reform. In 1687 he went to Hamburg, where he established a primary school that brought him valuable experience and determined the direction of his life. "Upon the establishment of this school," he says, "I learned how destructive the usual school management is, and how exceedingly difficult the discipline of children; and this reflection made me desire that God would make me worthy to do something for the improvement of schools and instruction."

WORK AT HALLE.-In 1691 the University of Halle was founded, and the following year, through the influence of Spener, Francke was appointed Professor of Greek and Oriental Languages, and at the same time pastor of a suburban church. Here in Halle he accomplished a great work, which stands in educational history almost without a parallel. The beginning was very humble. The poor were accustomed to assemble on Thursday before the parsonage to receive alms. The thought occurred to Francke that the occasion might be improved for religious instruction. He invited the crowd of young and old into his

house, and along with bread he administered spiritual food. He learned the condition of the poorer classes, and his heart was touched by their ignorance and need. He deprived himself of comforts to administer to their necessities. He solicited aid from his friends, and hung up a poor-box to receive contributions. One day he found in it the sum of seven florins, the gift of a benevolent woman. With the joy of faith he exclaimed: "That is a splendid. capital, with which I must accomplish something useful; I will begin a school for the poor!" Books were immediately bought, and a needy student of the university engaged to teach the children two hours a day. The undertaking prospered; the parsonage soon became too small; more commodious quarters had to be engaged. With increasing wants came enlarged contributions, and Francke continued to develop his work till it assumed at length immense proportions. At the time of his death, in 1727, it comprised the following institutions:

1. The Pedagogium, having eighty-two students. This school was designed for the higher classes, and provided instruction in religion, Latin, Greek, Hebrew, French, German, arithmetic, geography, history, chronology, geometry, astronomy, music, botany, anatomy, and the essential principles of medicine. In order to render instruction as practicable as possible, the school was equipped with a museum of natural history, a chemical laboratory, apparatus for experiments in physics, and a botanical garden. All this marked a departure in the secondary education of the time, and places Francke among the educational reformers.

2. The Latin School of the Orphan House, with three inspectors, thirty-two teachers, four hundred students, and ten servants.