resenting the dealer, and the whole data obtained shall be laid before the court.

SEC. 9. That any manufacturer, producer, or dealer who refuses to comply, upon demand, with the requirements of section eight of this Act shall be guilty of a misdemeanor, and upon conviction shall be fined not exceeding one hundred dollars, or imprisonment not exceeding one hundred days, or both. And any person found guilty of manufacturing or offering for sale, or selling, an adulterated, impure, or misbranded article of food or drug in violation of the provisions of this Act shall be adjudged to pay, in addition to the penalties hereinbefore provided for, all the necessary costs and expenses incurred in inspecting and analyzing such adulterated articles which said person may have been found guilty of manufacturing, selling, or offering for sale.

SEC. 10. That this Act shall not be construed to interfere with commerce wholly internal in any State, nor with the exercise of their police powers by the several States: Provided further, That nothing in this Act shall be construed to interfere with legislation now in force, enacted either by Congress for the District of Columbia or by the Territorial legislatures for the several Territories, regulating commerce in adulterated foods within the District of Columbia and the several Territories.

SEC. II. That any article of food or drug that is adulterated or misbranded within the meaning of this Act, and is transported or being transported from one State to another for sale, or if it be sold or offered for sale in the District of Columbia and the Territories of the United States, or if it be imported from a foreign country for sale, or if intended for export to a foreign country, shall be liable to be proceeded against in any district court of the United States, within the district where the same is found and seized for confiscation, by a process of libel for condemnation. And if such article is condemned as being adulterated the same shall be disposed of as the said court may direct, and the proceeds thereof, if sold, less the legal costs and charges, shall be paid into the Treasury of the United States, but such goods shall not be sold in any State contrary to the laws of that State. The proceedings of such libel cases shall conform, as near as may be, to proceedings in admiralty, except that either party may demand trial by jury of any issue of fact joined in such case; and all such proceedings shall be at the suit of and in the name of the United States.

THE DANGER OF USING BIOLOGICAL ANALOGIES IN

REASONING ON EDUCATIONAL SUBJECTS.

BY DR. W. T. HARRIS, U. S. Commissioner of Education.

For many years I have been attracted and afterward repeiled by one theory and another relating to education, which undertook to reason from the body to the mind-from the brain to the soul— from the events of animal life to the events of spiritual life-and to explain the latter through the former. The attempt to reform the school in some particular by the light of physiology or by phrenology, or by the study of pre-historic beginnings of civilization, has often been successful; but quite as often it has been unsuccessful. In the former case some waste of bodily power has been prevented; in the latter case some more important spiritual power has been dwarfed or paralyzed to gain some less valuable advantage for the body.

When one first begins to think on a subject which has hitherto been purely a matter of routine and tradition with him, he falls too readily into a habit of criticism of the established order and condemns with undue haste. As a consequence, his corrections and would-be reforms all need readjustment to prevent them from deing more harm than good; for he has seen only one evil out of many, or only one phase of an evil instead of the whole of it. On this account he may, by removing one evil, let in another and worse evil that has been held in check by the choice of the less noxious

one.

I must confess, with a degree of sadness, that I have become from year to year more skeptical in regard to reforms advocated in the name of school hygiene. Not that I doubt the importance of hygiene, but rather that I doubt the attainments of those who talk so glibly about it: for I see them unduly securing minor advantages at the expense of great and permanent injuries to health. and normal growth.

The schoolhouse, at first, was only a slight modification on the dwelling house. There was light and ventilation sufficient for two, three, or four persons in the room. The dark parts of the room were light enough for many purposes of housework, and if one wished to read or to sew or perform the work of cleansing or separating such articles of food as had been ground and needed

sifting, or as were composed of small grains or kernels, and needed picking over, a seat near the window secured the requisite light.

But the school needed a room lighted in all parts, as nearly equal as possible, and with a constant supply of fresh air, heated properly. It was gradually discovered that the room of the dwelling house was poorly adapted for school purposes. Some pupils got too little light and became near-sighted by holding their books too close to their eyes; some came to have weak eyes by having too much light. For the glare of a page on which the sunlight falls is sufficient to produce partial blindness. Even pure skylight, without the direct rays of the sun, will tend to do this. Many have been the so-called improvements which, in correcting the evil of insufficient light, ignored entirely the great injury done to those pupils who sat in the full glare of the sun or of the clear sky, and for hours, each day, tried their eyes on perceiving letters and figures in small print. I need not speak here of the various attempts to light the room from the front of the pupil, forcing him to strain his eyes in order to make out the words of the page when seen in the direction of the source of light; the experiment of lighting from two sides, the left and the right sides, with its attendant impossibility of getting the light upon the book from either side without at the same time facing the light on the other side. The light was tried from the right side alone and the pupil had to have the shadow of his hand on the place where he was writing. Light from the left and rear came at last to be adopted with much unanimity by educational experts in this country in 1876. But the tendency to make large buildings has since that time permitted and encouraged the construction of the schoolhouses with one-half of the rooms lighted from one side only; this, too, without due consideration of the relation between the height of the tops of the windows and the width of the room. The consequence of this is that most of our cities have schoolrooms in which there is a row of desks where pupils sit in a twilight and acquire the habit of holding their books too near the eyes; and another row of desks where the pupils have the glare of light that I have described and the effort of nature to adjust the retina to the overplus of light dims the power of vision below the normal standard.

In the schoolroom of a building altered over from a dwelling house there is also another attendant evi!. The pupils in a row of seats placed directly under the windows are exposed, in cold weather, to chilling currents of air which are constantly flowing

down the sides of the wall and especially down the window surface. Children not of robust constitution often lay the foundation of much bodily disease in this way. Improper lighting, by reason of the sympathy of the eyes with the stomach, produces in pupils of delicate constitution a tendency to nervous dyspepsia. Indeed, the errors in lighting and in avoiding draughts of cold air seem to me so serious that I cannot listen patiently to those who praise the countless devices which are invented for one and another trifling advantage in the hygiene of the schoolroom. For it were better that they had not been discovered than to distract, as they do, the attention from the far weightier matters of light and temperature and ventilation.

One idea crowds out another in some cases, although in other cases one idea leads to or brings in another. The general idea suggests its applications. But the particular idea, having small scope, may get in the way of more fruitful ideas. We have to measure ideas as to their relative value and decide for ourselves which may properly give way to the other. For example, take the unhygienic school as it existed and now exists in the countries that are backward in this matter of school architecture, and we must admit that the great purposes of the school were secured and are secured in the log school house, in the dark, ill-ventilated tenement building rented for a school in a slum district, or in a mere shanty school in the west of Ireland. The great purpose of learning to know printed language, to become eye-minded instead of earminded, to gain besides one's colloquial vocabulary also a vocabulary of science and literature and philosophy-to become able to understand and use technical language-all these things came then and come now to the gifted youth without the improvements in hygiene that we clamor for. Abraham Lincoln read by the firelight of the blazing hearth and fed his mighty mind.

It is true that the average of life in those unhygienic days was far less than now. But the illiterate savage does not reach a life average so great as the unhygienic, but civilized man, and what is more to the point, fifty years of Europe is worth a cycle of Cathay. A rational life, growing in the production of science, and art and literature, and in diffusing the blessing of civilization, is better than a savage life, even if the latter were to have an average of eighty years, while the former were to have an average of thirty years. According to the merely biologic point of view, life is life, whether of plant or animal or man, and the more of it the better. But such is not the spiritual point of view.

Some years ago Max Mueller wrote up the theory of the sunmyth as found in the beginnings of mythology. The stories of the heathen gods were thinly veiled allegories of the solar year, or of the four seasons, or of the diurnal revolution. The words signifying divine things are originally words describing the phenomena connected with the progress of the sun in the equinox or through the hours of day and night. Later on, the sun-myth theory was used to explain all religion. It is all founded on sunmyths. The conclusion was drawn by many devotees to philologues that the basis of religion is only a personification of natural phenomena, and that there is no reality corresponding to religious conceptions. It was said that the sun-myth is a disease of language. Then religion came to be regarded also by this school of philosophy as also a disease of language. Outsiders who observed this extension of the sun-myth theory began to expect that sconer or later the theory would be carried one step farther, and that philosophic thought would be declared to be a disease of language, and sure enough this appears to be the upshot of the book of Professor Max Mueller on the science of thought. This is made plausible by the following steps: The words of a language stand for classes and species of objects, and not for mere individuals. "John is a boy," says that John belongs to the class of beings known as boy. The word "is" has universal significance, as copula expressing subsumption; the article "a" expresses the general concept "one of," and even the word "John" says any boy who is called John. We have to add to language a meaning of our own to make it apply to a particular individual being, and no one person's meaning of a word is absolutely what another person means by it.

Now add to this view another one with reference to the nature of objects that exist, namely, that all that exists is composed of some one or more definite things-that only particular individuals exist and that language has made all its words stand for general classes of beings, actions and relations, and in so doing has made it entirely symbolical, instead of corresponding literally and in detail to reality; and we now begin to see where we are going. It is only one step to the conclusion that all general thought relations rest on the scaffolding of language, and are baseless as regards their truth. Generalizations of thought regarding the world and its destiny are the product of a disease of language. In fact, we might as well call language itself a disease.

But where can we stop? If the anthropoid ape invented the