position as well as make an assertion in the past, present, or future. It also expresses certain other relations which in other languages (as in Latin) are generally expressed by a different mood. The following examples will illustrate these

uses:

Εἰ τοῦτο ἀληθές ἐστι, χαίρω, if this is true, I rejoice (§ 221); εἰ eypayev, hoov av, if he had written, I should have come (§ 222); ei ypável, yvwooμai, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (§ 223, Ν. 1). Ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, he takes care that this shall happen (§ 217). AéyeL OTI TOUTO TOLEî, he says that he is doing this, (sometimes) eitev öri toûto toiî, he said that he was doing this (he said, ποιῶ). Εἴθε με ἔκτεινας, ὡς μήποτε τοῦτο ἐποίησα, O that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this! (§ 251, 2; § 216, 3). Elle TOUTO ảλŋlès v, O that this were true! (§ 251, 2).

REMARK. These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. Their variety shows the impossibility of giving any precise single definition, which will be of practical value, including all the uses even of the indicative. With the subjunctive and optative it is equally impossible.

2. The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples :—

'Eρxeraι iva Toûto idŋ, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216); poßeira μn TOUTO Yévnтai, he fears lest this may happen (§ 218). 'Eav on, TOUTO Tоnow, if he shall come (or if he comes) I shall do this (§ 223); éáv Tis eλon, ToÛTO Tоw, if any one (ever) comes I (always) do this (§ 225). Οταν ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιήσω, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3); ötav tis ëλOŋ, TOUTO TOι, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233). Iwμev, let us go (§ 253). My Ti eiro; what shall I say? (§ (surely) will not happen (§ 257).

avμáσnte, do not wonder (§ 254). 256). Οὐ μὴ τοῦτο γένηται, this Idwpai, I shall see (Hom.).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to. REMARK. The subjunctive, in its simplest and apparently most primitive use, expresses simple futurity, like the future indicative; this is seen in the Homeric independent construction, doua, I shall see; cinŋoi Tis, one will say. Then, in exhortations and prohibitions it is still future; as ἴωμεν, let us go; μὴ ποιήσητε τοῦτο, do not do this. In final and object clauses it expresses a future purpose or a future object of fear. In conditional and conditional relative sentences it expresses a future supposition; except in general conditions, where it is indefinite (but never strictly present) in its time.

S

3. The various uses of the optative are shown by the following examples:

Ei

Ἦλθεν ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδοι, he came that he might see this (§ 216) ; ἐφοβεῖτο μỶ TOUTO YÉVOLTO, he feared lest this should happen (§ 218). ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, if he should come, I should do this (§ 224) ; εἴ τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἐποίουν, if any one (ever) came I always did this (§ 225). "Οτε ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, whenever he should come (at any time when he should come), I should do this (§ 232, 4); ὅτε τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἐποίουν, whenever any one came I always) did this (§ 233). Επεμελεῖτο ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσοιτο, he took care that this should happen (§ 217). Εἶπεν (οι ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ποιοίη (ποιήσοι or Toinσeie), he said that he was doing (would do or had done) this (§ 243).

"EXOoi av, he might go (if he should wish to) (§ 224). Eile μn Tóλoivro, O that they may not perish! Mǹ yévoiro, may it not happen (§ 251, 1).

These constructions are explained in the sections referred to.

REMARK. The optative in many of its uses is a vaguer and less distinct form of expression than the subjunctive, in constructions of the same general character. This appears especially in its independent uses; as in the Homeric 'EXévnv åyoiro, he may take Helen away (cf. ayérow, let him take); loev, may we go (cf iwpev, let us go); un yévoiro, may it not happen (cf. un yévntai, let it not happen); otro av (Hom. sometimes oro), he would take (cf. Hom. AnTal, sometimes with ké, he will take). So in future conditions; as el yévoiro, if it should happen (cf. eàv yévŋrar, if it shall happen). In other dependent clauses it is generally a correlative of the subjunctive, sometimes of the indicative; it expresses the changed relation of a dependent subjunctive or indicative in those constructions when the verb on which it depends is changed from present or future to past time. The same change in relation is expressed in English by a change from shall, will, may, do, is, &c., to should, would, might, did, was, &c. To illustrate these last relations, compare ἔρχεται ἵνα ἴδῃ, φοβεῖται μὴ γένηται, ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ τοῦτο ποιῶ, ἐπιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, and λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, with the corresponding forms after past leading verbs given in 3.

4. The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions; as τοῦτο ποίει, do this; μὴ φεύγετε, σ not fly.

5. The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number.

§ 214. The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require any other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1). The infinitive and participle are included here only so far as they are used in indirect discourse or in protasis and apodosis. These constructions are divided as follows:

I. Final and Object clauses after iva, ws, öлws, and μý. II. Conditional sentences. III. Relative and Temporal sentences. IV. Indirect Discourse. V. Causal sentences. VI. Wishes. VII. Commands, Exhortations, and Prohibitions. VIII. Homeric Subjunctive (like Future Indicative). -Interrogative Subjunctive. Ov μý with Subjunctive or Future Indicative.

I. FINAL AND OBJECT CLAUSES AFTER ἵνα, ὡς, ὅπως, μή.

§ 215. The clauses which depend on the so-called final particles iva, os, öπws, that, in order that, and μý, that not, lest, may be divided into three classes :—

A. Final clauses, expressing the purpose or motive; as ἔρχεται ἵνα τοῦτο ἴδῃ, he is coming that he may see this. Here all the final particles may be used.

B. Object clauses with oπws after verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect; as oкÓTEL ÖπWS TOÛTO yevýσetaɩ, see to it that this is done.

C. Object clauses with un after verbs of fear or caution; as poßêiтαι μǹ тoûto yévntai, he fears that (or lest) this may happen.

REMARK. The first two classes (sometimes classed together as final) are to be distinguished with special care. The object clauses in B are the direct object of the leading verb, and can even stand in apposition to an object accusative like τοῦτο ; as σκόπει τοῦτο, ὅπως μn σe overaι, see to this, namely, that he does not see you. But a final clause could stand in apposition only to ToÚTOV EVEкa, for the sake of this, or διὰ τοῦτο, to this end; as ἔρχεται τούτου ἕνεκα, ἵνα ἡμᾶς ἴδῃ, he is coming for this purpose, namely, that he may see us.

NOTE 1. The negative adverb in all these clauses is μý; except after un, lest, where ou is used.

NOTE 2. "Oppa, that, is used as a final particle in Epic and Lyric poetry.

A. Final Clauses.

$216. 1. Final clauses take the subjunctive after primary tenses, and the optative after secondary tenses. E.g.

Διανοεῖται τὴν γέφυραν λῦσαι, ὡς μὴ διαβῆτε, he thinks of breaking up the bridge, that you may not pass over. Λυσιτελεῖ ἐᾶσαι ἐν τῷ παρόντι, μὴ καὶ τοῦτον πολέμιον προσθώμεθα, it is expedient to allow it for a time, lest we may add him to the number of our enemies. Παρακαλεῖς ἰατρούς, ὅπως μὴ ἀποθάνῃ, you call in physicians, that he may not die. Φίλος ἐβούλετο εἶναι τοῖς μέγιστα δυναμένοις, ἵνα ἀδικῶν μὴ διδοίη δίκην, he wished to be a friend to the most powerful, that he might do wrong and not be punished. Τούτου ἕνεκα φίλων ᾤετο δεῖσθαι, ὡς συνέργους ἔχοι, he thought he needed friends for this purpose, namely, that he might have helpers.

NOTE 1. The future indicative very rarely takes the place of the subjunctive in final clauses after ὅπως, ὄφρα, and μή. This is almost entirely confined to poetry. See Odyss. i. 56, iv. 163; Il. xx. 301.

NOTE 2. The adverb av (ké) is sometimes joined with os, oπws, and ὄφρα before the subjunctive in final clauses; as ὡς ἂν μάθῃς, ávákovσov, hear the other side, that you may learn. It adds nothing to the sense that can be made perceptible in English. In Homer and Herodotus it occasionally occurs even before an optative.

2. As final clauses express the purpose or motive of some person, they admit the double construction of indirect discourse (§ 242). Hence, instead of the optative after secondary tenses, we can have the mood and tense which would be used when a person conceived the purpose in his own mind; that is, we can say either ἦλθεν ἵνα ἴδοι, he came that he might see (§ 216, 1), or λev iva idŋ, because the person himself would have said pxoμai iva idw, I come that I may see. (See § 248, Note).

On this principle the subjunctive in final clauses after secondary tenses is nearly as common as the more regular optative. E.g.

Τὰ πλοῖα κατέκαυσεν ἵνα μὴ Κῦρος διαβῇ, he burned the vessels, that Cyrus might not pass over.

3. The secondary tenses of the indicative are used in final clauses with iva, sometimes with s or öπws, to denote that the end or object is dependent on some unfulfilled condition or some unaccomplished wish, and therefore is not or was not attained. E.g.

Τί μ ̓ οὐ λαβὼν ἔκτεινας εὐθὺς, ὡς ἔδειξα μήποτε; &c., why did you not take me and kill me at once, that I might never have shown? &c. Φεύ, φεῦ, τὸ μὴ τὰ πράγματ ̓ ἀνθρώποις ἔχειν φωνὴν, ἵν ̓ ἦσαν μηδὲν οἱ dewoi Móyou, Alas! alas! that the facts have no voice for men, so that words of eloquence might be as nothing.

B. Object Clauses with oπws after Verbs of Striving, &c.

§ 217. Object clauses depending on verbs signifying to strive for, to care for, to effect, regularly take the future indicative after both primary and secondary tenses.

The future optative may be used after secondary tenses, as the correlative of the future indicative, but commonly the indicative is retained on the principle explained in § 216, 2. (See § 202, 4.) E.g.

Φρόντιζ ̓ ὅπως μηδὲν ἀνάξιον τῆς τιμῆς ταύτης πράξεις, tale heed that you do nothing unworthy of this honour. Εμηχανώμεθα ὅπως μηδεις TOUTO YVσOLTO, we were planning that nobody should know this (here γνώσεται would be more common). Επρασσον ὅπως τις βοήθεια §e, they were trying to effect (this), that some assistance should

come.

NOTE 1. Sometimes the present or aorist subjunctive or optative is used after these verbs, as in final clauses. In this case is also may be used. Οπως ἄν or ὡς ἄν may be used before the subjunctive, never before the regular future indicative. Mý is sometimes used for oлws μý, generally with the subjunctive.

NOTE 2. The future indicative with ows sometimes follows verbs of exhorting, entreating, commanding, and forbidding, which commonly take an infinitive of the object; as διακελεύονται ὅπως τιμωρήσεται πάντας τοὺς τοιούτους, they exhort him to take vengeance on all such.

NOTE 3. The construction of § 217 is not found in Homer; but such verbs as are mentioned in Note 2, and verbs signifying to