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ADVERBS.

§ 194. Adverbs qualify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. E.g.

Οὕτως εἶπεν, thus he spoke ; πρῶτον ἀπῆλθεν, he first went away ; τὸ ἀληθῶς κακόν, that which is truly evil.

For adverbs preceded by the article, and qualifying a noun like adjectives, see § 141, N. 3. For adverbs with the genitive or dative, see §§ 168; 182; 185; 186. For adverbs as prepositions, see § 191. For negative adverbs, see § 283.

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THE VERB.

VOICES.

Active.

§ 195. In the active voice the subject is represented as acting: as τρέπω τοὺς ὀφθαλμούς, I turn my eyes; ὁ πατὴρ φιλεῖ τὸν παῖδα, the father loves the child; Tоs Tpéxel, the horse runs.

Passive.

§ 196. In the passive voice the subject is represented as acted upon; as ὁ παῖς ὑπὸ τοῦ πατρὸς φιλεῖται, the child is loved by the father.

§ 197. 1. The object of the active becomes the subject of the passive. The subject of the active, the agent, is generally expressed by iró and the genitive in the

passive construction. (See § 196 and the example).

NOTE. When the active is followed by two accusatives, or by an accusative of a thing and a dative of a person, the case denoting a person is generally made the subject of the passive, and the other (an accusative) remains unchanged. E.g.

Οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκεται ἄνθρωπος, the man is taught nothing else (in the active, οὐδὲν ἄλλο διδάσκουσι τὸν ἄνθρωπον). Αλλο τι μεῖζον ἐπιταχθήσεσθε, you will have some other greater command imposed on you (active, ἄλλο τι μεῖζον ὑμῖν ἐπιτάξουσιν, they will impose some other greater command on you). So ἐκκόπτεσθαι τὸν ὀφθαλμόν, to have his eye cut out, and ἀποτέμνεσθαι τὴν κεφαλήν, το

have his head cut off, &c., from possible active constructions ἐκκόπτειν τί τινι, and ἀποτέμνειν τί τινι (cf. § 184, 3, Ν. 1).

2. The perfect and pluperfect passive generally take the dative of the agent (§ 188, 3).

The personal verbal in Téos takes the dative, the impersonal in -Téov the dative or accusative, of the agent (§ 188, 4).

§ 198. The subject of the passive may be a neuter adjective which represents a cognate accusative of the active construction; or the passive may be used impersonally, the subject being implied in the idea of the verb itself. E.g.

̓Ασεβεῖται οὐδέν, no act of impiety is committed (act. ἀσεβεῖν ovdév, § 159, N. 1). So парeσкevaστai, preparation has been made (it is prepared); áμaptávetai, error is committed (it is erred): cf. Latin ventum est.

Middle.

§ 199. In the middle voice the subject is represented as acting upon himself, or in some manner which concerns himself.

1. As acting on himself: èтрáπоνто πρòs λŋστeíav, they turned themselves to piracy. This, though the most natural, is the least common use of the middle.

2. As acting for himself or with reference to himself: & dîμos TíbeTaι vópovs, the people make laws for themselves, whereas Tino vóμovs would properly be said of a lawgiver; TOUTOV μeтañéμñoμai, I send for him (to come to me); άeñéμñeтo avтoús, he dismissed them.

3. As acting on an object which belongs to himself: λ0€ Avσóμevos Ovyаrpa, he came to ransom his (own) daughter (Hom.)

NOTE 1. Often the middle expresses no more than is implied in the active; thus Tрórаiov σraolai, to raise a trophy for themselves, generally adds nothing but the expression to what is implied in Tpóαlov iσrával, to raise a trophy; and either form can be used. The middle sometimes appears not to differ at all from the active in meaning; as the poetic idéolai, to see, and ideîv.

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NOTE 2. The middle sometimes has a causative meaning; as ἐδιδαξάμην σε, I had you taught.

NOTE 3. The middle of certain verbs is peculiar in its meaning. Thus, anodidou, give back, anodídoμai, sell; ypá¶w, write or propose a vote, γράφομαι, indict; τιμωρῶ τινι, I avenge a person, τιμωροῦμαί Tiva, I avenge myself on a person or I punish a person; äπw, fasten, aπтoμaι, cling to (fasten myself to); so exopai, hold to.

NOTE 4. The future middle of some verbs has a passive sense; as ådɩkô, wrong, ȧdikýσoμai, I shall be wronged.

TENSES.

1. TENSES OF THE INDICATIVE.

§ 200. The tenses of the indicative express action as follows:

PRESENT, continued or repeated present action: ypάow, I am writing or I write (habitually).

IMPERFECT, continued or repeated past action: čypapov, I was writing, or I used to write.

PERFECT, action finished in present time: yéɣpapa, I have

written.

PLUPERFECT, action finished in past time: yeypaper, I had

written.

AORIST, simple past action: ypaya, I wrote. (See Note 5.) FUTURE, future action: ypaw, I shall write or I shall be

writing.

FUTURE PERFECT, action to be finished in future time: ycypáVeral, it will have been written.

NOTE 1. In narration, the present is sometimes used vividly for the aorist; as πορεύεται πρὸς βασιλέα ᾗ ἐδύνατο τάχιστα, he goes (went) to the king as fast as he could.

For the present expressing a general truth, see § 205, 1.

NOTE 2. The presents kw, I am come, and oxopal, I am gone, have the force of perfects; the imperfects having the force of pluperfects.

NOTE 3. The present eiut, I am going, has a future sense, and is used as a future of ἔρχομαι, whose proper future ἐλεύσομαι is not in good use in Attic prose.

NOTE 4. The present with ráλa or any other expression of past time has the force of a present and perfect combined; as πάλαι σοι τοῦτο λέγω, I have long been telling you this which I now tell).

NOTE 5. The aorist corresponds exactly to the so-called imperfect in English, whereas the Greek imperfect corresponds to the forms I was doing, &c. Thus, è moi et TOUTO is he was doing this or he did this habitually; TETоiŋKE TOûTO is he has already done this; ÉTETTOLŃKEL TOûTO is he had already (at some past time) done this; but oino e TOUTO is simply he did this, without qualification

of any kind.

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§ 201. In dependent clauses, when the construction allows both subjunctive and optative, or both indicative and optative, the subjunctive or indicative regularly follows primary tenses, and the optative follows secondary tenses (See § 90, 2). E.g.

Πράττουσιν ἃ ἂν βούλωνται, they do whatever they please; ἔπραττον ἃ βούλοιντο, they did whatever they pleased. Λέγουσιν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλονται, they say that they wish for this; ἔλεξαν ὅτι τοῦτο βούλοιντο, they said that they wished for this.

These constructions will be explained hereafter (§§ 233, 243).

II. TENSES OF THE DEPENDENT MOODS.

A. Not in Indirect Discourse.

§ 202. In the subjunctive and imperative, and also in the optative and infinitive when they are not in indirect discourse (§ 203), the tenses chiefly used are the present and aorist.

1. These tenses here differ only in this, that the present denotes a continued or repeated action, while the aorist denotes a simple occurrence of the action, the time of both being precisely the same. E.g.

οιήσ

ση

'Eav To ToÛTo, if he shall do this (habitually), av Toi TOUTO, (simply) if he shall do this; ei Toloin ToÛTO, if he should do this (habitually), ei Toinσele TOûTO, (simply) if he should do this; TOLE TOUTO, do this (habitually), ToinooV TOUTO, (simply) do this. BOÚλETAL TOUTO TOLEîv, he wishes to do this (habitually); βούλεται τοῦτο ποιῆσαι, (simply) he wishes to do this.

This is a distinction entirely unknown to the Latin, which has

(for example) only one form, si faciat, corresponding to ei roto in and ei Tono elev. Even the Greek does not always regard it; and in many cases it is indifferent which tense is used.

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2. The perfect, which seldom occurs in these constructions, represents an action as finished at the time at which the present would represent it as going on. E.g. Δέδοικα μὴ λήθην πεποιήκῃ, I fear lest it may prove to have caused forgetfulness (un on would mean lest it may cause). βουλεύεσθαι ἔτι ὥρα, ἀλλὰ βεβουλεῦσθαι, it is no longer time to be deliberating, but (it is time) to have finished deliberating.

Οὐ

NOTE. The perfect infinitive sometimes expresses decision or permanence, and sometimes it is merely more emphatic than the present; as εἶπον τὴν θύραν κεκλείσθαι, they ordered the gate to be shut (and kept so); ἤλαυνεν ἐπὶ τοὺς Μένωνος, ὥστ ̓ ἐκείνους ἐκπέπλῆχθαι καὶ τρέχειν ἐπὶ τὰ ὅπλα, so that they were once for ally thoroughly frightened and ran to arms.

3. The future optative and future infinitive are regularly used only to represent the future indicative in indirect discourse (§ 203).

NOTE. For the future infinitive with péλλw, see § 118, 6.

B. In Indirect Discourse.

REMARK. The term indirect discourse includes all clauses depending on a verb of saying or thinking which contain the thoughts or words of any person stated indirectly, i.e. incorporated into the general structure of the sentence. It includes of course all indirect quotations and indirect questions.

§ 203. When the optative and infinitive stand in indirect discourse, each tense represents the corresponding tense of the same verb in direct discourse. E.g.

Ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράφοι, he said that he was writing (he said γράφω, Ι am writing); EYEV ŐTɩ y pá↓o, he said that he would write (he said γράψω, I will write); ἔλεγεν ὅτι γράψειεν, he said that he had written (he said ἔγραψα); ἔλεγεν ὅτι γεγραφὼς εἴη, he said that he had already written (he said γέγραφα). "Ηρετο εἴ τις ἐμοῦ εἴη σopwτepos, he asked whether any one was wiser than I (he asked ἔστι τις ;).

Φησὶ γράφειν, he says that he is writing (he says γράφω); φησὶ γράψειν, he says that he will write (γράψω); φησὶ γράψαι, he says that he wrote (ἔγραψα); φησὶ γεγραφέναι, he says that he has written (γέγραφα). Το ἔφη γράφειν, he said that he was writing (he said ypapa); &c.

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