These constructions will be explained in § 243 and § 246 (cf. § 247). Here they merely show the different force of the tenses in indirect discourse and in other constructions. Compare especially the difference between φησὶ γράφειν and φησὶ γράψαι under § 203 with that between βούλεται ποιεῖν and βούλεται ποιῆσαι under § 202. Notice also the same distinction in respect to the present and aorist optative.

NOTE 1. The present infinitive may represent the imperfect as well as the present indicative; as τίνας εὐχὰς ὑπολαμβάνετ ̓ εὔχε σθαι τὸν Φίλιππον ὅτ ̓ ἔσπευδεν; what prayers do you suppose Philip made when he was pouring libations? (i.e. tivas eỷxàs nűxeto ;).

NOTE 2. Verbs of hoping, expecting, promising, &c., allow either the future infinitive (as in § 203) or the present and aorist (as in § 202). E.g.

Ηλπιζον μάχην ἔσεσθαι, they expected that there would be a battle; but ἃ οὔποτε ἤλπισεν πα uleiv, what he never expected to suffer. Ὑπέσχετό μοι βουλεύσασθαι, and ὑπέσχετο μηχανὴν παρέξειν (both in Xen.).

III. TENSES OF THE PARTICIPLE.

§ 204. The tenses of the participle generally express the same time as those of the indicative; but they are

present, past, or future relatively to the time of the verb with which they are connected. E.g.

‘Αμαρτάνει τοῦτο ποιῶν, he errs in doing this ; ἡ μάρτανε τοῦτο ποιῶν, he erred in doing this; ἁμαρτήσεται τοῦτο ποιῶν, he will err in doing this. (Here πоɩν is first present, then past, then future, absolutely; but always present to the verb of the sentence). "ATελÕE ταῦτα λαβών, take this and be of λαβών being past to ἄπελθε, but absolutely future).

NOTE 1. The present may here also represent the imperfect; as οἶδα κἀκείνω σωφρονοῦντε, ἔστε Σωκράτει συνήστην, I know that they also were continent (i.e. eowppoveiτnv) as long as they associated with Socrates. See § 203, Note 1.

NOTE 2. For peculiar uses of the aorist participle, see § 279, 3 and 4.

IV. GNOMIC AND ITERATIVE TENSES.

§ 205. 1. The present is the tense commonly used in Greek, as in English, to denote a general truth or an habitual action; as πλοῖον εἰς Δῆλον Αθηναῖοι πέμπουσιν, the Athenians send a ship to Delos (annually).

2. In animated language the aorist is used in this sense. This is called the gnomic aorist, and is generally translated by the English present. E.g.

Ἤν τις τούτων τι παραβαίνῃ, ζημίαν αὐτοῖς ἐπέθεσαν, ie. they impose a penalty on all who transgress. Μί ̓ ἡμέρα τὸν μὲν καθεῖλεν vóbev, Tòv ♪ up' avo, one day (often) brings down one man from a height and raises another high.

3. The perfect is sometimes gnomic, like the aorist. E.g.

Τὸ δὲ μὴ ἐμποδὼν ἀνανταγωνίστῳ εὐνοίᾳ τετίμηται, but those who are (lit. that which is) not before men's eyes are (is) honoured with a good will which has no rivalry.

§ 206. The imperfect and aorist are sometimes used with the adverb av to denote a customary action. E.g.

Διηρώτων ἂν αὐτοὺς τί λέγοιεν, I used to ask them (I would often ask them) what they said. Πολλάκις ἠκούσαμεν ἂν ὑμᾶς, we used often to hear you.

REMARK. This iterative construction must be carefully distinguished from the ordinary apodosis with av (§ 222). It is equivalent to our phrase he would often do this for he used to do this.

THE PARTICLE "AN.

§ 207. The adverb äv (Epic κé) has two distinct uses. 1. It is joined to all the secondary tenses of the indicative (in Homer also to the future indicative), and to the optative, infinitive, or participle, to denote that the action of the verb is dependent on some condition, expressed or implied. Here it belongs to the verb.

2. It is joined regularly to ei, if, and to all relative and temporal words (and occasionally to the final particles ὡς, ὅπως, and ὄφρα), when these are followed by the subjunctive. Here it belongs entirely to the particle or relative, with which it often forms one word, as in ἐάν, ὅταν, ἐπειδάν.

There is no English word which can translate av. In its first use it is expressed in the would or should of the verb (Boudoiro av, he would wish; oíμŋv äv, I should choose). In its second use it has no force which can be made apparent in English.

REMARK. The following sections (§§ 208-211) enumerate the various uses of ǎv; when these are explained more fully elsewhere, reference is made to the proper sections.

§ 208. 1. The present and perfect indicative never take ǎv.

2. The future indicative often takes av (or ké) in the early poets, especially Homer; very rarely in Attic Greek.

E.g.

Kai Ké TIS & épée, and perhaps some one will thus speak ; ἄλλοι, οἵ κέ με τιμήσουσι, others who will honour me (if occasion offers). (Hom.)

3. The most common use of av with the indicative is when it forms an apodosis with the secondary tenses. See § 222.

§ 209. 1. In Attic Greek the subjunctive is used with av only in the constructions mentioned in § 207, 2, where av belongs to the introductory word. See § 223, § 225, § 232, 3, § 233; also § 216, 1, N. 2.

2. The Homeric subjunctive, which is often used nearly or quite in the sense of the future indicative (§ 255), may, like the future (§ 208, 2), take av or кé. E.g.

Εἰ δέ κε μὴ δώωσιν, ἐγὼ δέ κεν αὐτὸς ἔλωμαι, and if they do not give her up, I will take her myself.

§ 210. The optative with av forms an apodosis, with which a condition must be either expressed or implied (§ 224).

§ 211. The present and aorist infinitive and participle are used with av to form an apodosis. Each tense is here equivalent to the corresponding tense of the indicative or optative with av, the present representing also the imperfect. Thus the present infinitive or participle with av may represent either an imperfect indicative or a present optative with av; the aorist, either an aorist indicative or an aorist optative with ǎv. E.g.

(Pres.) Φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, he says that they would (now) be free (oav av), if they had done this;

φησὶν αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν εἶναι, εἰ τοῦτο πράξειαν, he says that they would (hereafter) be free (elev äv), if they should do this. Oida αὐτοὺς ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ τοῦτο ἔπραξαν, I know that they would (now) be free (noav äv), if they had done this; oida airOÙS ἐλευθέρους ἂν ὄντας, εἰ ταῦτα πράξειαν, I know that they would (hereafter) be free (elev av), if they should do this (§ 280).

(Aor.) Φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ TOUTO EYEVETO, they say (or I know) that he would have come (Oev ἄν), if this had happened; φασὶν αὐτὸν ἐλθεῖν ἂν (or οἶδα αὐτὸν ἐλθόντα ἂν), εἰ τοῦτο γένοιτο, they say (or I know that he would (hereafter) come (λoi av), if this should happen.

So the perfect infinitive with av may represent either the pluperfect indicative or the perfect optative with av. The context must decide in each case whether we have the equivalent of the indicative or of the optative with av. In the examples given above, the form of the protasis is decisive.

§ 212. 1. In a long apodosis av may be used twice or even three times with the same verb ; as οὐκ ἂν ἡγεῖσθ ̓ αὐτὸν

κἂν ἐπιδραμεῖν; do you not think that he would even have rushed thither?

2. When an apodosis consists of several co-ordinate verbs, åv generally stands only with the first; as ovdèv åv διάφορον τοῦ ἑτέρου ποιοῖ, ἀλλ' ἐπὶ ταὐτὸν ἀμφότεροι lolev, he would do nothing different from the other, but both would aim at the same object (av belongs also to lolev).

THE MOODS.

§ 213. 1. The indicative is used in simple, absolute assertions; as ypápe, he writes; čypayev, he wrote; ypável, he will write; yéypaper, he has written.

It also expresses certain other relations, many of which are expressed in other languages (as in Latin) by a different mood. The following examples will illustrate its various uses :

Εἰ τοῦτο ἀληθές ἐστι, χαίρω, if this is true, I rejoice (§ 221); εἰ ἔγραψεν, ἦλθον ἄν, if he had written, I should have come (8 222); ei ypável, yvwooμaι, if he shall write (or if he writes), I shall know (223, Ν. 1). Επιμελεῖται ὅπως τοῦτο γενήσεται, he takes care that this shall happen (§ 217). he says that he is doing this; sometimes, said that he was doing this (he said ποιῶς.

Λέγει ὅτι τοῦτο ποιεῖ, elπTEV OTI TOÛTO TOLεî, he Εἴθε με ἔκτεινας, ὡς

μÝTOTE TOÛTO È Toiŋoa, O that thou hadst killed me, that I might never have done this ! (§ 251, 2, § 216, 3). Εἴθε τοῦτο ἀληθὲς ἦν, Ο that this were true! (§ 251, 2).

2. The various uses of the subjunctive are shown by the following examples:

*EPXeraι iva ToÛTo in, he is coming that he may see this (§ 216); poßeiraι μn TOUTO YévηTal, he fears lest this may happen (§ 218). Ἐὰν ἔλθῃ, TOUTO Tоnow, if he shall come (or if he comes), I shall do this (§ 223); ἐάν τις ἔλθῃ, τοῦτο ποιῶ, if any one (ever comes, I (always) do this (§ 225). "Orav eλon, тOÛTO Tоnow, when he shall come (or when he comes), I shall do this (§ 232, 3); ötav tis ëλOŋ, TOUTO TOι, when any one comes, I (always) do this (§ 233).

Ἴωμεν, let us go (§ 253). Μή θαυμάσητε, do not wonder (§ 254). Τί εἴπω; what shall I say? (§ 256). Οὐ μὴ τοῦτο YvnTal, this (surely) will not happen (§ 257). ́ ́ "Idwμai, I shall see (Hom., § 255).

3. The various uses of the optative are shown by the following examples :—

"Hλdev iva ToÛTo idol, he came that he might see this (§ 216); ἐφοβεῖτο μὴ τοῦτο γένοιτο, he feared lest this should happen (§ 218). Εἰ ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἂν ποιήσαιμι, if he should come, I should do this (§ 224); εἴ τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἐποίουν, if any one (ever) came, I (always) did this (§ 225). "OTE EXO, TOUT' av Toinσaiμi, whenever he should come (at any time when he should come), I should do this (§ 232, 4); ὅτε τις ἔλθοι, τοῦτ ̓ ἐποίουν, whenever any one came, I (always) did this (§ 233). 'Ееμеλεîто опws TOUTO YEV NOOITO, he took care that this should happen (§ 217). Εἶπεν (οι ἔλεγεν) ὅτι τοῦτο ποιοίη (ποιήσοι or ποιήσειε), he said that he was doing (would do or had done) this (§ 243).

EXOoi av, he might go (if he should wish to) (§ 226, 2). Eïde μǹ ἀπόλοιντο, Ο that they may not perish! Μὴ γένοιτο, may it not happen (§ 251, 1).

4. The imperative is used to express commands and prohibitions; as ToÛTO TOίeɩ, do this; μǹ pevyete, do not

fly.

5. The infinitive is a verbal noun, which expresses the simple idea of a verb without restriction of person or number.

§ 214. The following sections (§§ 215-257) treat of all constructions which require any other form of the finite verb than the indicative in simple assertions (§ 213, 1).