and Hippocrates. The Attic was the language of Athens during her period of literary eminence (from about 500 to 300 B.C.).

The Attic dialect is the most cultivated and refined form of the Greek language. It is therefore made the basis of Greek Grammar, and the other dialects are usually treated, for convenience, as if their forms were merely variations of the Attic. This is a position, however, to which the Attic has no claim on the ground of age or primitive forms, in respect to which it holds a rank below the other dialects.

The Greek is descended from the same original language with the Indian (¿.e. Sanskrit), Persian, German, Slavonic, Celtic, and Italian languages, which together form the Indo-European (sometimes called the Aryan) family of languages. Greek is most closely connected with the Italian languages (including Latin), to which it bears a relation similar to the still closer relation between French and Spanish or Italian. This relation accounts for the striking analogies between Greek and Latin, which appear in both roots and terminations; and also for the less obvious analogies between Greek and the German element in English, which are seen in a few words like me, is, know, &c.

PART I.

LETTERS, SYLLABLES, AND ACCENTS.

THE ALPHABET.

§ 1. THE Greek alphabet has twenty-four letters :

NOTE 1. At the end of a word the form s is used, elsewhere the form σ; thus σύστασις.

NOTE 2. The Greek had originally a consonant called Vau or Digamma (F), equivalent to V or W, which had not entirely disappeared in pronunciation when the Homeric poems were composed. Many forms which seem irregular are explained only on the supposition that F has been omitted: see § 53, 3, N. 1; § 54, N.; § 108, II., 2. Digamma in the form 5, and the obsolete Koppa (9), equivalent to Q, and the character San (7), a form of Sigma, are used as numerals (§ 76).

VOWELS AND DIPHTHONGS.

§ 2. The vowels are, a, e, n, i, o, w, and v. Of these, e and o are always short; ŋ and @ are always long; a, ɩ, and v are sometimes short and sometimes long. § 3. The diphthongs (Si-p0oyyou, double sounds) are aι, αυ, ει, εν, οι, ου, ηυ, υι, ᾳ, ῃ, @. The union of a long vowel (a, n, w) with forms the (so-called) improper diphthongs a, n, w.

NOTE. In a, ?, w, the is now written below the first vowel, and is called iota subscript. But with capitals it is written in the line; as in ΤΗΙ ΚΩΜΩΙΔΙΑΙ, τῇ κωμῳδίᾳ, and in Ωιχετο, ᾤχετο.

BREATHINGS.

§ 4. 1. Every vowel or diphthong at the beginning of a word has either the rough breathing (') or the smooth breathing ('). The rough breathing shows that the vowel is aspirated, i.e. that it is preceded by the sound of h; the smooth breathing shows that the vowel is not aspirated. Thus opŵv, seeing, is pronounced horōn; but opov, of mountains, is pronounced orōn.

NOTE. A diphthong takes the breathing (like the accent) upon its second vowel. But a, 7, and take it upon the first vowel, even when the 4 is written in the line. Thus οἴχεται, εὐφραίνω, Αἵμων ; but ᾤχετο οι Ωιχετο, ᾄδω οι Αιδω, ᾔδειν οι Ἤιδειν,

2. The consonant p is generally written p at the beginning of a word, as in pýτwp (rhetor), orator.

CONSONANTS.

§ 5. 1. The consonants are divided into

labials, π, B, 4, μ,

palatals, K, Y, X,

linguals, T, 8, 0, σ, λ, v, p.

.

2. The double consonants are έ, y, C. E is composed of κ and σ; ψ, of π and σ; and generally arises from a

combination of 8 with a soft s sound.

§ 6. By another classification, the consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes.

1. The semivowels are λ, μ, v, p, and σ; of which the first four are called liquids, and σ is called a sibilant.

M

and v are also called nasals; to which must be added K, Y, X, or έ, where it has the sound of v, as

Υ

before

in aуkupa (ancora), anchor.

2. The mutes are of three orders:
:-

smooth mutes, π, K, T,

middle mutes, ß, y, d,

rough mutes, 4, X, 0.

These again correspond in the following classes :—

labial mutes, π, ß, &,

palatal mutes, k, Y, X,

lingual mutes, 7, 8, 0.

§ 7. The only consonants which can stand at the end of a Greek word are v, p, and S. If others are left at the end in forming words (cf. § 46, 1), they are dropped.

NOTE. The only exceptions are found in the proclitics (§ 29) è and ok (or oux), which have other forms, è and ov. Final & and (кσ and яσ) are no exceptions.

EUPHONY OF VOWELS.

COLLISION OF VOWELS. HIATUS.

§ 8. A succession of two vowel sounds, not forming a diphthong, was generally displeasing to the Athenians.

In the middle of a word this could be avoided by contraction (§ 9). Between two words it could be avoided by crasis (§ 11), by elision (§ 12), or by adding a movable consonant (§ 13) to the former word.

CONTRACTION OF VOWELS.

§ 9. Two successive vowels, or a vowel and a diphthong, are often united by contraction in a single long vowel or a diphthong ; as φιλέω, φιλῶ; φίλες, φίλει ; τίμαε, τίμα. The regular use of contraction is one of the characteristics of the Attic dialect. It follows these general principles :

1. When two vowels can form a diphthong (§ 3), they simply unite in one syllable : as τείχεϊ, τείχει ; γεραϊ, γέραι.

2. If one of the vowels is o or w, they are contracted into w; ας δηλόητε, δηλῶτε; φιλέωσι, φιλῶσι ; τιμάομεν, τιμῶμεν ; τιμάωμεν, τιμῶμεν ; δηλόω, δηλῶ. But eo, oo, and of give ου ; as γένεος, γένους ; πλόος, πλοῦς ; νόε, νοῦ.

NOTE. In contract adjectives in oos (§ 65) o disappears by absorption before a and η, αι and n; as ἁπλόα, ἁπλᾶ ; ἁπλόη, ἁπλῆ; ἁπλόαι, ἁπλαῖ; ἁπλόῃ, ἁπλῇ.

α

3. If the two vowels are a and e (or n), the first vowel sound prevails, and we have & or n; as ἐτίμαε, ἐτίμα ; τιμάητε, τιμᾶτε; τείχεα, τείχη.

Ad gives a, en or ne gives η; as μνάα, μνα; φιλέητε, φιλῆτε; τιμήεντος, τιμῆντος.

But ce gives et ; as ἐφιλεε, ἐφίλει.

NOTE. In the first and second declensions, ea becomes ā in the dual and plural, and in all numbers after a vowel or p (§§ 38, 65); it also becomes a in the third declension whenever it follows a vowel (§ 52, 2, N. 2; § 53, 3, N. 3). In the accusative plural of the third declension eas becomes εις (§ 51, 2).

4. A vowel disappears by absorption before a diphthong beginning with the same vowel sound. E is absorbed before o, and in contract nouns and adjectives also before aι. Thus, μνάαι, μναῖ; μνάᾳ, μνα; φιλέει, φιλεῖ; φιλέῃ, φιλῇ ; δηλόοι, δηλοῖ ; νόω, νῷ ; δηλόου, δηλοῦ ; φιλέοι, φιλοῖ; χρύσεοι, χρυσοῖ ; χρύσεαι, χρυσαῖ.

In other cases, a simple vowel followed by a diphthong is contracted with the first vowel of the diphthong,