The general method of attack after establishing the camp as close to the scene of operations as possible, is to endeavour to encircle the fire, if small, by clearing round it a line free of all inflammable material, with, on the far side of it, a trench cut to the mineral soil.

Where the fire is too large or too dangerous to be encirled, the scheme is to proceed round the flanks and pinch it in. The fire line is built as near as practicable. If the heat is unbearable, backfiring is adopted.

I do not regard the Australian problem as difficult. Bush fires, as a rule, do not attain the dimensions and intensity of the forest fires of America; the forest is more resistant, crown fires are very infrequent, and the forests are of less extent and much greater accessibility than in the United States of America.

One cannot hope, however, to put out a bush fire by pressing a button. The solution of our fire suppression problem lies in the development of a forest management plan, involving a topographic survey and the laying out of a system of roads; the establishment of forest stations and the employment of forest overseers to supervise the general forest operations.

Upon that organisation can be based a simple fire plan providing for-
(1.) The attachment of conditions to timber sale agreement, licenses
and permits, specifying measures of brush disposal, camp fire
precautions, &c.

(2.) The attachment of conditions to licenses and permits, &c.,
arranging for the employment of all forest users for fire-
fighting, as has been done in the Pilliga Forest, New South
Wales.

(3.) The effectuating of arrangements with local residents for reporting fires and assisting in their suppression.

(4.) The creation of the "burning house" sentiment among the general public by publicity methods.

(5.) The carrying out of fire plan studies.

Telephonic communication with forest overseers is desirable. ment of lookout stations will be necessary in only a few instances.

Establish

The forest overseer would be charged with the execution of the fire plan upon his forest.

I deprecate any reliance upon divisional or isolating firebreaks. The cost of establishing a 100 per cent. system to deal with a 2 per cent. burn is, as I have said before, unwarranted, and much more effective work can be done by direct fire detection and suppression measures.

The chief difficulties to be confronted are

(1.) The stockman's practice of burning off to secure a fresh shoot

of grass.

(2.) The lack of an organisation for detecting the outbreak of fire, and for suppressing it when discovered.

The simple measures proposed meet all these difficulties, and provide ample and organised protection to the forest at the minimum cost.

CHAPTER V.

THE FOREST GRAZING BUSINESS.

The management of the forest fodder resource is a very important branch of forest administration and one to which we in Australia must devote considerable attention.

Heretofore, exploitation of the forest pasturage has been controlled generally by the Department of Lands. As the State forests, however, are vested in the Forest Services, grazing problems will become involved with the general problems of forest administration.

In accordance with the policy of the Departments of Lands, the forest pasturage in the past has been disposed of under a leasehold system upon terms varying from one to forty years. Much of the New South Wales inland forest reservation is encumbered by such leases, which are difficult hurdles to be negotiated by the forester anxious to perfect the forest plan.

Recently, a grazing license system was introduced with considerable success, in the North-western Forestry District of New South Wales. It is of interest to note that that license system approximates very closely in principle to the American practice.

The leasing of grazing rights on a National Forest is regarded by the United States of America Forest Service as highly objectionable

It would greatly increase the difficulty of proper silvical development, prevent a proper use of ranges under abnormal natural conditions, and tend to exclude the smallest owners. Adequate protection of the forest would be rendered difficult if not impossible, because a lease even though filled with careful restrictions would give the lessee some right to dictate the use to which the area would be put. During the tenure of the lease no part of the tract could be closed to grazing, even though the necessity was urgent to prevent the destruction of seedlings, to secure reproduction on cut over or burned areas, or to protect important watersheds. The privilege would be a fixed instead of a flexible one, and if during the period forage was destroyed by fire, insects, or other cause, the stock would have to be removed from the forest instead of being transferred temporarily to another range. The leasing system would practically result in a number of individual allotments equal to the number of permittees and this would tend to shut out the small owner because he could not afford to hold his stock upon the small area to which he would be entitled. Fencing of the leased areas would necessitate leases for a term of years, and term leases would not only hamper forest management but also preclude recognition of new applicants who might be entitled to range."

-"National Forest Manual."

This excerpt adequately sets forth the objections to forest leasing in Australia.

Under the wide powers of the Act of 4th June, 1897, the Secretary of Agriculture has authority to permit, regulate, or prohibit grazing in the National Forests.

The "National Forest Manual" further sets forth—

"Under his direction, the Forest Service will allow the use of the forage crop as fully as the proper care and protection of the forests and water supply will permit. The cattle and sheep which are grazed in the National Forests bear an important relation to the supply of beef and mutton in this country and every effort will be made by forest officers to promote the fullest possible use of grazing resources."

In 1915, no less than 1,727,000 head of cattle, horses, and hogs and 7,283,000 head of sheep and goats were grazed on the United States of America National Forests.

Although the charges were only nominal-about one-fourth the actual values the revenue derived was £236,000.

The grazing business is one of the features of the United States of America Forest Service. It is controlled by a specialist assistant to the Forester at Washington, and in every District Forestry Office is an assistant District Forester who specialises in and devotes his whole attention to that one line of work.

The leading objects of the grazing regulations are laid down as—

(1.) The protection and conservative use of all National Forest land adapted for grazing.

(2.) The permanent good of the live stock industry through proper care and improvement of the grazing lands.

(3.) The protection of the settler and home builder against unfair competition in the use of the range.

The basis of the United States of America system is a permit issued on a charge per capita basis and granted generally for one year, though, “where all controversies have been settled and proper numbers of stock are allowed, the Secretary for Agriculture will authorise approval of applications for periods of not more than five years, with the understanding that all permits are terminated at any time and that the renewal of permits will be within his discretion.

The present fees are nominal. The rates are based upon an annual charge for cattle, which varies from 1s. 8d. to 6s. per head according to the situation and advantages of the forest.

Since horses require about 25 per cent. more pasturage space than cattle and do greater damage, the rates for horses are from 25 per cent. to 40 per cent. higher.

For pigs the rates are from 25 per cent. to 40 per cent. lower.

For sheep and goats, the charge is 25 per cent. of that for cattle.

An additional charge of one penny per head is made for the privilege of lambing ewes.

For periods less than twelve months the rate is slightly higher.

All fees are payable in advance and before issue of the permit.

Permits are issued only to persons entitled to share in the use of the National Forest by virtue of prior use, local residence, or dependence upon the pasturage. New settlers are not regarded as having gained a permanent preference until they have demonstrated the good faith of their settlement by three years of residence, improvement and cultivation.

Preference is given to local residents in all cases, and American citizens are given first consideration.

A certain number of live stock is fixed for each National Forest, and permits are issued up to that number so long as no damage is done by such stock.

"A reduction will be made from the number of stock grazed during the previous season if, owing to the number grazed or the method of handling stock, damage is being done to the forest, and in extreme cases all stock will be removed."

"Every effort will be made to distribute the stock satisfactorily in the range in order to secure greater harmony among the users of the forest, to reduce the waste of forage by tramping in unnecessary movement of stock, and to obtain a more permanent, judicious, and profitable use of the range."

The average number of stock which a settler must graze in order to utilise the products of his farm or derive a reasonable profit is determined upon each Forest, and is regarded as a protective limit safe from reduction in any renewal of the permit.

In arriving at this average the dependence of settlers upon the National Forest ranges is considered.

Under ordinary conditions the average number of stock per permit is taken as the basis.

To prevent monopoly, the District Forester establishes a maximum limit upon the number of stock allowed any one applicant.

In fixing the grazing periods endeavour is made to meet the general needs of the people and to secure an economical use of the range. The condition of the pasturage rather than the desires of the applicants, however, is the prime consideration. It is deemed unwise to allow stock on Forest Ranges before the feed has started, or while the range is so wet that the stock will cause injury to both forage and tree growth.

An endeavour is made to secure the best use of each class of range by allotting the class of stock to which each is most adapted. The Forest is classified into divisions consisting of national grazing units defined by topographic boundaries.

"Cattle and horses ordinarily graze both ways from a stream, but seldom cross the summits of the surrounding ridges. Sheep and goats ordinarily graze the crests and slopes of a ridge or mountain, but will cross none but shallow streams except on bridges. This should be kept in mind in fixing range boundary lines."

Separation of dairy cattle, stock cattle and steers is regarded as beneficial, and is encouraged as far as possible. Sheep and goats are generally allotted individual ranges.

When the silvicultural needs of the Forest demand it, the Supervisor may close an area to all grazing, or reduce the number of stock allowed upon it, or prohibit its use by certain classes of stock.

"For instance, sheep may be excluded from a Timber Sale area for a certain number of years after cutting; or in a year of scarcity of mast, hogs (otherwise permitted) may be excluded from the oak type. Where planting operations are being carried on, it will usually be necessary to exclude all classes of stock.

"If silvical investigations show that grazing is responsible for the scantiness or lack of reproduction over a considerable area, a portion of it may be withdrawn from range use until young growth has become established, several years later another portion, and so on until the whole area has been treated.”

The aim is to secure the welfare of the Forest with the least possible friction or interference with stock interests. If total exclusion of stock from a Forest is contemplated, one year's notice is regarded as being not excessive.

A feature of the U.S.A. forest grazing policy is the principle of a co-operation with Live Stock Associations, the majority of whose members use the National Forest range.

"The primary purpose of all the regulations is to make the National Forests as useful as possible to the people, consistent with their protection and perpetuation. It is clearly impossible to meet the wishes of each individual user, but it may be entirely possible to meet the wishes of the majority if made through an organisation. It is to secure from the people collectively, definite statements of their needs and wishes that the organisation of stock associations is encouraged."