Madison, as it had been before, and was afterward by others, but "the United States had not yet learned the fact," says Prof. Saley, "that a nation with a large commerce is bound to do its part in maintaining the police of the ocean. Instruction was, of course, given all these years and long after at the navy-yards or on board cruising ships. The former were at New York, Philadelphia, and Norfolk. In 1835 there were three ships which, seven years later, had thirteen instructors of mathematics alone. At the navy-yards there were twice as many. At this time Prof. Chauvenet was in charge at Philadelphia, and was a man in a thousand. He was a master, both as teacher and scholar. In 1845 George Bancroft became Secretary of the Navy. After years of compromises, the Government had found a man who was equal to the situation. He asked for no legislation. He only proposed to use the power he had and make the most of it. A school on shore was projected, whose instruction should include both theory and practice, and embrace besides academic studies, the law of commerce, marine surveying, ordnance, gunnery, and the use of steam. A half-dozen of the most efficient of his force were selected, the rest were retired, and there was opened at Annapolis, Maryland, in 1845, a school which became, under Chauvenet and others, five years later, the United States Naval Academy.

The present course includes:

1. Naval tactics and practice in seamanship.

2. Mathematics, navigation, astronomy, land and nautical surveying, and drawing.

3. Natural and experimental philosophy, mechanics, the construction and management of the steam-engine.

4. Chemistry, mineralogy, and geology.

5. Gunnery and infantry tactics.

6. Modern languages.

7. Ethics.

Besides the instruction afforded at the Naval Academy, there is also the Nautical School on board the St. Mary's vessel at Brooklyn, seventy per cent of whose five hundred

graduates have become seamen, and that on the California training-ship Jamestown. The University of Michigan gives annually a course of lectures on naval architecture in which are discussed the resistance of ships, speed, buoyancy, stability, wave-motion, etc. In Massachusetts, towns are authorized by law to establish schools for training young men in nautical duties.

The Naval War College at Newport, Rhode Island, is a school of graduate instruction for officers of the navy. It was opened in 1884, with a greatly specialized but withal a comprehensive course of technical instruction in military and naval science. It embraces (1) the science and art of war; (2) law and history. Under the first are taught (a) strategy and tactics; (b) military campaigns, (c) joint military and naval operations, (d) the management of seamen in military operations, and (e) elements of fortification and intrenchment-all from the military point of view; supplemented by (f) naval strategy and tactics, (g) naval campaigns, and (h) joint military and naval operations, from the naval standpoint. Under the second are embraced, (a) international law, (b) treaties of the United States, (c) rules of evidence, (d) general naval history, and (e) modern political history.

Bibliography.

"Scientific Schools in Europe, considered with reference to their Adaptation to America," Dr. D. C. Gilman, Barnard's "American Journal of Education," vol. ii; "Art Education-Scholastic and Industrial," Walter Smith, 1873; "Report on Industrial Education," Senate document, 1883; "Report on Technical Education in the United States and Canada," by the English Commission, 1884; " A New Principle in Education— Development of the Constructive Faculty," Felix Adler, “Princeton Review," 1883; the same reviewed and criticised in the "Presbyterian Review," January, 1884; "Education in its Relation to Industry," Arthur McArthur, 1884; "Industrial Education, a Pedagogical and Social Necessity," P. Seidel, 1887; "Industrial Training," "Forum," April, 1887; the 'Progress of Industrial Education," P. C. Garrett, 1883; "The Modern Polytechnic School," inaugural address of Dr. C. O. Thompson, of

Rose Polytechnic Institute, 1883; "Technical Instruction in America," J. H. Rigg, "Contemporary Review," August, 1884; "Technology and Public Education," C. O. Thompson, before Michigan State Teachers' Association, 1884; "Manual Training," Charles Ham, 1886; "Manual Training," C. M. Woodward, 1887; "Manual Training," by Colonel Augustus Jacobson, “Proceedings of the National Educational Association," 1884, p. 293; "Manual Training," Felix Adler, ibid., p. 308; the "New York Trade School";

66 Report of Massachusetts Board of Education, 1884; "Naval Education," D. D. Porter, the "United Service Magazine," July, 1879.

CHAPTER XIV.

EDUCATION OF UNFORTUNATES AND CRIMINAL CLASSES.

THE idea of education in its economic aspect, as a means of reforming the offending classes, while not new, has a larger field, and, in the different ethical standards of the time, more favorable conditions for its growth. No intelligent person supposes that a limited education is a sure cure or prevention of crime, but that, other things equal, the advance in general intelligence means higher measures in conduct; and the frequent reform of the viciously inclined, if taken early, may be proved by history for a hundred years. The idea itself is not recent; but faith in the principle such as seeks to make the regenerative influences of a right education common to all the class is altogether modern.

So also it may be said that care for the dependent classes, as charity to the unfortunate and needy, is a characteristic of recent civilization. But other than this and indefinitely superior is the attempt to enlarge their intellectual horizon. Brotherly kindness has fed and clothed, sheltered and protected them in all ages of civilization. But provisions for their education, not only as mental improvement, but training them to self-support, and as lifting them out of the

pauper class, point to a higher and more recent interest. The blind, deaf-mutes, minor orphans, imbeciles, the insane, vagrants, and young and uncared-for offenders against society, all, speaking broadly, belong to the same non-productive class, a drain upon society, except they be given possession of their remaining powers, and a mastery of nature by patient, intelligent training.

In this class, also, are to be considered the Indians in large part, and their education in learning, industry, and the ways of civilized life.

1. Deaf-Mute Education.

Even the oldest records of teaching the deaf are recent. Among the ancients, regarded as under a curse, or idiotic, or at best so deficient in intellect as to be irresponsible, they were debarred from all civil rights. Even Blackstone held that a man who is born deaf, dumb, and blind is to be regarded "in the same state with an idiot."

The first systematic attempt to instruct them was by Pedro Ponce de Leon, in Spain, in 1550. Seventy years after, was published a simple alphabet. By the middle of the century the system was introduced into England; lipreading was described by a Hollander about the same time, and before 1700 the two-hand alphabet was invented. But for two centuries from the time of Ponce de Leon, the interest was wholly benevolent and individual. In 1774, at Leipsic, was opened a government school. Such American deaf-mutes as received any instruction were sent to England. In the year 1815, however, Rev. T. H. Gallaudet, a recently ordained minister in Connecticut, interested in the deaf-mute child of his neighbor, undertook her instruction. The attention of others gained, steps were taken to found an institution. Mr. Gallaudet was made director. He at once visited the schools of England and Scotland, and spent three months with Sicard in Paris. Immediately upon his return there

*"Commentaries," Book I, chapter viii.

was opened at Hartford "The Connecticut Asylum for the Education of Deaf and Dumb Persons." The State Legislature appropriated five thousand dollars. Private means did most. Later, Congress granted the institution twenty-three thousand acres of land, whose proceeds form a part of the present endowment, and, upon the assumption that the one institution would be sufficient to accommodate the deafmutes of the country at large, the name was changed to the "American Asylum for Deaf-Mutes at Hartford." But many children were found so affected, and in 1818 the New York Institution was opened as a day-school, and for several years was under the direction of the State Superintendent, as were other public shools.

Following these were established similar asylums in Pennsylvania (1821), Kentucky (1823), Ohio (1827), Illinois (1837), Virginia (1839), Indiana and Tennessee (1847), North Carolina and Georgia (1845), and South Carolina (1849) — twelve in all, in as many States, in thirty years.

There are now sixty-one institutions in thirty-five States (Delaware, Louisiana, Nevada, New Hampshire, and Vermont, arranging for the education of their deaf in adjoining States), two Territories-New Mexico, and Utah, and the District of Columbia. Eleven States have two or more each; New York has six, and Missouri four. These schools enroll in the aggregate nearly eight thousand pupils, and represent an expenditure of a million and a half of dollars. More than half of them are public institutions, and all, with perhaps half a dozen exceptions, receive State (or municipal) aid. Yet a large majority of them require tuition fees, and are so made exclusive or pauper establishments.

In deaf-mute instruction two methods are chiefly used; that of De l'Épée, the sign method, introduced by Gallaudet, and in exclusive use in this country for fifty years. It includes writing, and teaches by means of objects, gestures, and arbitrary symbols. The other is the German or articulation method, and involves lip-reading. This begins with the voicing of simple sounds, slowly and distinctly by the in

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